refused to recognize a ry. and finally forced the President to form a Ministry from the Left Centre. In 1S75 the Republicans obtained a majority in the Senate. and Mae :Nlahon. unwilling longer to maintain the conflict. resigned in 1S79, and was succeeded by Clrevy. Their supremacy once established, the Repub licans renewed their factional struggles. The Left Centre lost its influence. G:11Dbet I a 's Republican Union was opposed by a growing Radical Wing, which reproached Gainlyetta with opportunism. A series of Ministries tending toward radicalism followed. A period of per sonal politics was entered upon, with Min istries combined for expediency rather than as ex ponents of political principles, fourteen ditn-rent Ministries holding olliee between 1878 and 1888. The two principal wings of the Republicans came to be known as Opportunists and Radicals. The Legitimists nnited with the Orleanists in 1883, and Iwo years later an increased number of monarchists were returned to the Chamber. An attempt was made in the face of this growing Conservative strength to unite the Opportunists .41n1 Radicals (policy of Republican concentra tion). The pretender, to the throne were ban ished in 1886 at the instance of the Concentration Ministry. In 1887 the Bouvier Ministry adopted the so-called policy of conciliation. which aimed at a coalition of Conservatives and Opportunists against the Radicals. In the same year General Boulanger (q.v.) came into prominence and sought to profit by the irrevailing political eon fusion. Ills shibboleth. 'revision of the Constitu tional Laws.' won support from all of the dis satisfied factions. His party was known as the Revisionist or National Party. The support of Boulanger by the Catholic Conservatives alien ated his Radical followers. who joined the Op portunists to defeat him. In 1889 the complete overthrow of this political adventurer was ac complished. This victory was important evi dence of the growing strength of the Republic.
A marked change in parties now began. The Republicans who had united to defeat Mail:Inger continued to net together as Moderates or Gov ernment Republicans. The monarchist parties WPre all weakened and discredited by their participation in the Boulanger episode. Radi calism came to be more and more represented by the Socialists. This body, hitherto of slight importance, bad its origin in the break-up of the Republicans during the struggle against the July Monarchy, those who continued to uphold Repub lican principles seeking a purely political revolu tion, while a party of workingmen and theorists sought to make the Republic a means of radical social reform. In the succeeding years the ideas of the Socialists frequently found expression in the demands of the Radicals. In 1890 there were four Socialist groups, with views more or less extreme, and increasing political activity. A change that greatly strengthened the Moderates was the gradual cessation of clerical opposition to the Republic. Many Catholics who had for merly acted with the reactionary parties now to the stippOrt of the Government under the name of Runic's, or the Constitutional Right. A protective tariff with maximum and minimum rates was enacted in 1892: otherwise there was very little positive legislation during this re alignment of parties, and the Freyeinet Ministry (1890-92) enjoyed a hitherto almost unprece dented term of office. in 1892 there was a startling exposure of the use of enormous cor ruption funds in promoting the Panama Canal scheme. Over one hundred Senators, Deputies,
and officials were impliented, including many political leaders, hut even in the face of this the Moderates gained largely in the elections of 1893. The policy of concentration was discarded, and the Moderates took full responsibility. with Casimir-Pc.rier (q.v.) at the head of the Min istry. The murder of President Cannot in 1894 was followed by the election of Casimir-PC!rier as his successor and drastic measures against anarchists. The new President and his Govern ment were violently assailed by the Socialists and Radicals for their policy, the Dupuy .linistry went down in 1895 before the Oppo sition attacks, and then Casimir-PC.rier re signed the Presidency. Felix Faure (q.v.) Was elected President by a union of the Moderates and the Right, but the Socialists, who had sup ported Brisson, had shown a significant increase of strength. The first Moderate Cabinet (Ribot) gave way in a few months to one much more Radical (Bourgeois), but the latter, after a struggle with the Senate. was succeeded in 1896 by another Moderate Ministry 01(dine). The Dreyfus case (see DaEyFus) complicated French polities for three years, and even endiingered the Republic. The .11(dine which depended on the support of the Right, ca nie to an end in 1898. A Radical Ministry under Brisson wrestled unsuccessfully for a few months with the Dreyfus case. A new• coalition Cabinet was then or ganized by Dupuy. On the death of President Faure. in February, 1899, Emile Loubet (q.v.) was elected to the Presidency, and in June a new Ministry was made up by M. Waldeck Rousseau. A Radical Socialist, M. Millerand, was included in this Cabinet. The Government took positive measures to put down the revived Nationalist agitation, imprisoning several of the old Bonlangists, who had resumed their activity. An amnesty bill in 1900 purged all who were connected with the Dreyfus ease. Wldle the Government thus tried to still the strife which had injured France. it (lid not hesitate to bring on a conflict with the Catholic! Church. This was done by the introduction of the so-called Associa tions Bill, regulating the privileges and rights of property of certain associations. This measure, while general in its terms, was ostensibly intend ed to bring within control of the common the 'Jesuits and 111011a:56C C0111/111111ffieS. which had no authorization from the State, held large amounts of property. conducted numerous schools. and were directed to a great extent from outside of France. Notwithstanding Papal warnings and severe criticism at home, the measure was car ried by a good majority in March. 1902, and in April the long-lived Waldeck-Rousseau Adminis tration went to the people on its record. The result was the election of 382 Ninisterialists and but. 196 of all the opposition factions. After this vindieation of his policy, the Premier retired and was sueceeded by Combos, who continued his predecessor's policy and unsparingly enforced the Associations Law•. When the first excite ment bad passed. it became evident that the Government had a powerful legislative and pop ular backing. A supplementary measure in March, 1903. practically refused the conduct of schools to the religions Orders, on the ground that their tendency was unrepublican. This action pointed to a growing separation of Church and State in France. and the development of parties indicated the eonsolidation of the Re public and a more radical political condition.