FRANCE. The Socialist Party in France did not gain any considerable following until after 1890. Its late appearance is doubtless due to the frequent revolutions in that country and its dis ordered and unsettled condition, which rendered it more favorable for anarchistic and revolu tionary movements. With the firm establish ment of the Republic and the lapse of a gener ation since the last revolution, the relatively ordered and legal means of modern social de mocracy have found a more fruitful soil, and anarehistic tendencies have been pressed into the background. The early Utopian socialism was practically dead in 1860. The International Workingmen's Association gained some influence in France during the uprising of the Paris Com mune, which, however, was only partially social istic. The International Association did not, however, exercise any considerable influence and soon disappeared. So far as it continued to exist, it fell under anarchist influences under the leadership of anarchists like Elis Reelus and Prince Krapotkin. A Socialist paper pub lished by a group of students made its appear ance in 1876. and three years later Jules Guesde, who formerly had been anarehistically inclined, founded a Socialist Labor Party in France. He was soon joined by a former comrade in anarchy, Dr. Paul Brousse. In 1889 the total Socialist vote was only 91,000 in round numbers out of a total of 6.847.000 votes; two years later the vote rose to 540,000, or nearly 9 per cent. of the total vote east. This vote includes those who voted for the so-called Socialist Radicals. who, while having strongly socialistic leanings and generally acting with the Socialists, may not be regarded as full socialists. inasmuch as they do not ac cept the entire socialist programme. In 1893 the Socialists increased their strength in the French Assembly threefold, the number of Deputies ris ing from fifteen to fifty. It thus became in that year a great political party.
The next great event in the history of French socialism was the appointment of A. Millerand to a Cabinet position as Minister of Commerce under Waldeck-Ronsseau in June. 1899. This was the first time in the world's history that a socialist had attained such a prominent position in government. The acceptance by Millerand of this position gave rise to fierce dissensions with in the Socialist ranks. His opponents held that he had placed himself outside the control of the party by participating in the actual administra tion of a capitalistic government. Alillerand's position, however, was sustained by Jean Lon Jaures (q.v.). It is noteworthy that the pro posal to censure Millerand for his acceptance of a Cabinet position has not been indorsed by the Socialists in their convention.
There are four or five factions among the French Socialists. We have, first, the Minis terialists or independents led by Jaures and Millerand; next, the Marxists under the leader ship of Jules Guesde. The latter form the party
called Parti Ouvrier Francais. They constitute the two chief divisions and the other factions may be grouped about them in their ten dencies. We have also a group called the Alleinanists from their chief, Jean Allemane, taking, like the Ministerialists. a position of op portunism. There is, besides, a small group called the Blanauists, of a more revolution ary character. We have also the Socialist Rad icals already mentioned. who aet with the Socialists. The principal Socialist publication of France is La Petite Republique, a daily with an enormous circulation. It is an organ of that wing of the party led by Nillerand and JRUreS, and aims to harmonize and unite the various Socialist groups. There is also a daily paper, L'Aetion, Socialist, anti-Ninisterialist, and vio lently anti-clerical. It has a large circulation. A monthly called La Revue Socialiste seeks to do an educatiolial and scientific work among the French Socialists like that which Die note Zeit aims to accomplish in Germany. Le Socialiste, the weekly organ of the Parti Ouvrier Francais, and Le Mourcmcnl Socialiste, are also important periodicals.
RiTssin. For a half century most radical and revolutionary agitation of one kind or another has been carried on in Russia, and the two most familiar names among the international leaders of anarchism, Mikhail Bakunin and Peter Kra potkin, are those of Russian exiles. Early in the second half of the nineteenth century this agitation took the name of Nihilism (q.v.), which was a kind of political anarchism rather than economic anarchism. One aim which has in the past been prominent in Russia among radical economic reformers is to connect social and economic reconstruction with the Russian agricultural village called the mir (q.v.). It has been hoped by these leaders that Russia could pass directly from the early stage of economic de velopment into socialism, without passing through modern capitalism as an intermediate stage. During the past few years. under the leadership of George Plekhanoff, a resident of Switzerland, Narxian socialism has made some progress. The Socialists. having no field for political activity, turn their attention to labor agitation, ana it is said by them with apparent truth that the great strikes in Russia during the past ten years have to no inconsiderable degree been an outcome of modern social democracy.
The entire Socialist activity is secret and no names of Russians living in Russia can be men tioned. The agitation in large part proceeds from foreign countries, and the socialist litera ture is smuggled into Russia and secretly circu lated. Russia is regularly represented at the International Socialist Congress.