So much has been said about Christian social ism, that this article should not. be concluded without at least a brief reference to it. Chris tian socialism has had many different meanings. Where the leaders of socialism have been irre ligious, Christian socialism has sometimes simply signified socialism plus religion. Now that so cialists have come to place religion among private matters in which they are not directly concerned, less is heard than formerly about Christian so cialism. Christian socialism has sometimes sig nified simply a recognition of the principle of social solidarity, and a generous sympathy with those classes in society which are the least for tunately situated, more specifically with the wage earning classes. About the middle of the nine teenth century a body of Christian socialists existed in England and attracted wide atten tion. They were led by men like Thomas Hughes, Charles Kingsley, James Ludlow, F. D. Maurice, and E. Vansittart Neale. Theoretically they op posed the principle of competition as a source of evil, and did so with great vehemence, and agi tated in favor of cooperation in production and ex change. They attempted to organize society on a coOperative basis, and succeeded in establishing a number of coOperative undertakings which enjoyed only a temporary prosperity, and filially disappeared. They entered. however, into the cooperative movement in England. which had been theretofore largely supported by men act ing under the influence of Owen, and they con tributed very much to the success of English cooperation. The high character and the in tellectual power of these men were such that they have been able to exercise a profound in fluence upon English thought, and to a less ex tent upon the thought of other countries. The
outcome of their efforts is seen in the multi form attempts to improve social conditions.
Socialism of the chair, or professorial social ism, is frequently mentioned, but this also is something as indefinite as Christian socialism. It is not socialism at all, but simply a recogni tion of grave evils in existing society, a deter mination to remove these evils, and the convic tion that the power of the State must be used to bring about desirable changes. The term social ism of the chair originated in Germany, and was applied in ridicule to the progressive economists who expressed sympathy with the aspirations of the wage-earning classes. Among the leaders may be mentioned Professors Adolph Wagner and Gustav Schmoller, now both of Berlin. These held that economics is an ethical science, and opposed the doctrines of the so-called Manchester school, which looked with little favor upon State action. The changes which have taken place among economists have been such as to lessen the differences among them with respect to eco nomic improvement. Generally speaking. those who twenty years ago were most inclined to call upon the State for help have become somewhat more conservative, while at the same time those who most strongly antagonized public action have qualified their opposition thereto. The course of events has convinced practically all economists of the importance of labor legislation and of the necessity of state intervention at many points. Professorial socialism, then, never was socialism, and at the present time it can hardly be said that it indicates a line of cleavage among economists.