STAMMERING (from stammer, 0I1G. stain malfon, stamalon, Ger. stammern, stammeln, to stammer ; connected with OHG. stammal, stoma!, stammering, stem, Ger. stumm, mute, Goth. stamms, stammering). An imperfect enunciation of words due to irregular or spasmodic action of the muscles of articulation. The trouble is sometimes a form of chorea (q.v.), sometimes entirely an emotional incoordination. In many sufferers, difficulty lies in the enunciation of the initial syllables of certain words, especially if they begin with b, p, t, or d. In some cases, when once pronounced, the syllable is involuntarily repeated again and again. This variety of stammering is sometimes termed stuttering. The latter is physical, while stammering is mental. The trouble often begins merely as hesitancy with a disposition to avoid certain words, or a little imperfect articulation and stumbling over certain words. regard their condition as hereditary because there are other members of their family who stammer. This is probably an error. :Mimicry is the cause in many cases. Some begin at the time of an illness, some are due to fright. The great majority of stammerers begin at the age of five years or earlier. Very rarely is the habit formed after twenty years of age. The
proportion of males to females is as to L Malformation of organs of speech in stammerers is so rare that it may be denied. In the very rarest instances disease or defect in the hypo glossal nerve and its muscles exists. Emotion, fear, anger, argument, and embarrassment all in crease stammering and are in some instances en tirely accountable for it. If the bodily condition is improved, the stammerer acquires more self control and prevents the occurrence. Out-of-door exercise, mental and moral hygiene, avoidance of all undermining influences, and great care result in conquest of the condition in most cases. Bold ness and self-reliance will render it impossible. :Measured tones, care in attacking each word, and thoughtful deliberation are almost always absolutely successful. Stammerers can always sing without difficulty. Some learn to enunciate distinctly while performing an associated move ment, as tilting the head or lifting a finger with each word, It is stated that in the United States there are over 400,000 cases of this speech defect. Consult Lewis, Practical Treatment of Stammering and Stuttering (Detroit, 1902).