The theory of the State has passed through several important stages in the course of the de velopment that has brought it up to its present position. A philosophy of polities was first de veloped by the classical school of which Plato,. Aristotle, and Cicero were the leading exponents. The most marked characteristics of the political thinking of this time were the deyelopnient of political theory from the city as a basis—the city State—the complete subordination of the in dividual to the State in the discussion of politi cal problems, and the constant confusion of po litical and ethical theory. In the next great period. that of the Ages, political theory was interpreted in the light of Christian theology. A system of polities was deduced from the joint authority of the Script ores, the writings of the Fathers, the philosophy of Aristotle, and the Roman law—all analyzed and presented with the subtlest refinement of which Scholasticism was capable. The point around which political speculation centred was the true and proper re lation between Church and State. Thomas Aquinas (Summa Thcologica and Dc Regimine Principum) was the most successful champion of the (Lurch ; Marsilius of Padua (Defensor Pacis) and Dante (Dc Monarchia) of the State. During the Renaissance and the Reformation political theory made important advances. By the work of Machiavelli (11 prineipe, Discorsi) politics was divorced from theology and ethics, and elevated to the position of an in dependent science. Jean Bodin, reviving the method and spirit of Aristotle, laid the founda tions of modern systematic politics in his epoch making treatise, De Republica. In the revolu tionary period of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the so-called natural-larn• philosophy was dominant. The fundamental premise of this system was the universal prevalence of an im mutable law of natural justice, under which and independently of any government all men hold certain natural rights. e.g. life, liberty, and property. From this premise followed the theory of a contract as the basis of all legitimate gov ernment, the administration of government for the good of the parties to the contract, and the right of revolution whenever government is per verted to selfish ends by the rulers. Of these
doctrines John Locke (Two Treatises of Civil Government) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (Le contrat social) were the most influential ex pounders. During the same period the opposing doctrines of the divine right of kings and gov ernmental absolutism were developed by Robert Filmer (Patriarchal and Bossnet (Politique tire de Peeriture Sainte), while Thomas Hobbes turned the natural-law theory to the defense of absolutism (The Leviathan). As opposed•to the a priori conception of these writers, Montesquieu (Esprit des lois) placed the study of political science upon an historical basis.
The modern theory of politics, dating from the reaction against the excesses of the French Revo lution, is based on the historical-scientific premise that all institutions are the product of an evolutionary movement in which the con scious will of individuals plays a comparatively unimportant part. The method followed is his torical and comparative, in contrast to the de ductive style of the preceding school. The numerous problems arising out of the develop ment of modern democracy, those involved in Nationalism, Federalism, and Imperialism, and the determination of the proper function of gov ernment, are the questions upon which general attention is fixed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The most important works on Bibliography. The most important works on the history of political theory are: Dunning, A History of Political Theories (New York, 1902) ; Janet, Histoire de la science politique dans ses rapports arse la morale (Paris, 1850. 1872) Bluntschli. Geschiehtc der neueren Staatsnsissen schrift (Munich. 1864) ; Mobl, Geschiehte and Litteratur der Staatsmissenschaften ( Erlangen, 1S55-58) ; Pollock. Introduction to the Study of the Science of Polities (London, 1890). Consult also: Lieber, llan7ial of Political Ethics (Bos ton, 1838 39) ; id., Legal and Political Hermeneu tics (ib.. 1839) ; Woolsey, Political Science; or the State Theoretically and Practically Consid ered (New York. 1877) : Wilson. The State (Boston, 1889) ; Sidgwiek, Elements of Politics (London, 1806) ; Willoughby, The Nature of Ike State (New York, 1896) ; Bosanquet, The Phil osophical Theory of the State (London, 1899).