The reading from the Scriptures, though in Hebrew, was coupled in the synagogues of Pales tine and Babylonia with a translation or para phrase in the current Aramaic idiom. and pre sumably in the synagogues of Egypt a Greek translation was employed, but the chief prayers were always pronounced in Hebrew, though the Talmud admits the use of other languages in worship. Besides the prayers and the readings, a feature of early synagogue worship was the ex position of the law or of the lesson of the day by a competent person. In eourse of time a more elaborate liturgy developed. The oldest complete ritual, known as siddur (`arrange menC), dates from the year A.D. SSO, and was compiled by a Rabbi Aniram. In the liturgy as finally evolved two distinct elements are dis cernible: the Shenia' ('Hear, 0 Israel,' etc.), be ing a collection of the three passages, Deuteron omy vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21, and Numbers xv. 37-41, expressive of the unity of God and of His govern ment over Israel, put together without any ex traneous addition; and the MAU/NJ or prayer. consisting of a certain number of supplications, with a hymnal introduction and conclusion, fol lowed by the priestly blessing. The single por tions of this prayer gradually increased to eight een and the prayer itself received the name of Shlinonah'esheh (eighteen). For a long time the prayers were recited only by the reader, the peo ple joining in silent responses and amens. These readers by degrees—ehiefly from the tenth cen tury—introduced occasional prayers of their own, and ultimately religious doctrine, history, saga, angelology, and mysticism, interspersed with biblical verses, are found put together in a mosaic of the most original and fantastic, often grand and brilliant, often obscure and feeble kind. The ritual differed in different countries. At the beginning of the nineteenth century a movement began in Germany for the reform of the ritual and gradually spread to other coun tries. At first the changes consisted in the shortening of certain prayers, the omission of others and the introduction of German, English, or French by the side of the Hebrew.
The synagogues contributed more than any thing else to the steadfast adherence of the peo ple to their religion and liberty as long as there was any possibility of keeping both intact. At
the same time they gradually undermined the priestly and aristoeratie element that gathered around the temple, its gorgeous worship and kingly revenues. Their importance as a place of instruction as well as a place of worship was of profound influence on the development of Judaism. Both primary and advanced instruc tion in the Scriptures and subsequently in Tal mudic literature was given in the synagogue, and in the early centuries of the Christian Era legal decisions were likewise announced there. The synagogue could also be used as the place of mourning for prominent members of the com munity, and there are instances on record of the use of synagogues for political gatherings. In Babylonia travelers were accommodated in the synagogue and ate their Sabbath meals there. In view of these various uses to which the syna gogue was put, it is not surprising that it be came in the Middle Ages the centre of the re ligious and intellectual life of the Jews and in a measure of their social life•as well. The 're form' movement within Judaism as well as the extension of the intellectual interests of the Jews has resulted in narrowing the influence and scope of the synagogue to purely religious affairs, though in orthodox Jewish communities in Eastern Europe and in the Orient the former status of the synagogue is still in large meas ure maintained.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Selliirer, History of the JewBibliography. Selliirer, History of the Jew- ish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (Eng. trans.. London, 1886-90) ; Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (Philadelphia, 1896) ; Griitz, History of the Jews, vol. i. (Eng. trans., ib., 1893). For the ritual, Leopold Lbw, Der synagogale R it us (Gesam melte Sell rif t en, vol. iv., Szegedin, 1889) Dembitz, Jewish Services in Synagogue and Home (Philadelphia, 1899) ; Zunz, Der Rites synagogalen Gottesdienstes, geschichtlich entwickelt (Berlin, 1855-59) ; a complete English translation of the Portuguese ritual may be found in Lesser's Prayer-book (Philadelphia, 1845) ; and a translation of the German ritual iu Sachs's Mac/Isar (Berlin, 1866).