To characterize and convey an idea of the contents of the Mishna is a comparatively simple matter, but it is almost an impossible task to in dicate the heterogeneous character of the Gemara, more particularly of the Babylonian Talmud. The discussions on the Mishna led the Rabbis and their pupils far away from the subject, at times, indeed, a section coming to a close without a re turn to the starting point. In the course of these digressions, anecdotes, bits of historical gossip, folk-lore, the popular science of the day, and mathematical calculations are intermixed with sober and playful exegesis of the Old Testament by the application of a series of hermeneutical principles evolved in the schools of Palestine and Babylonia. Sophistry and hair-splitting dia lectics are suddenly interrupted by charming parables and poetic allegories. In a sense, it is easier to say what the Gemara does not contain than to summarize its contents. It is a veritable eneyelopaalia of Rabbinical knowledge, and only the lack of system prevents the justifiable ap plication of that term to this remarkable com pilation. To distinguish the purely legal from the extraneous material, a division is commonly made into Halacha ( lit., norm) and Hagada ( lit., tale) .
The history of the Talmud is the history of Judaism from about the beginning of our era to the dawn of the nineteenth century. In that history we may distinguish the following pe riods: (1) To the completion of the Mishna, during which time the Rabbis bear the name of Tana'im ('teachers') ; five generations are enu merated. (2) The growth of the Gemara, the Rabbis of this second period being known as A moraiin ('speakers'), comprising seven genera tions. (3) To the completion of the Talmud, the Rabbis of this period being distinguished as Saboraim (`examiners'). (4) To the struggle in the ninth and tenth centuries between the Karaites and the adherents of the Talmud known as the Rabbanites, marked by the labors of Saadia (q.v.). (5) The adjustment of Tal mudical Judaism to the prevailing form of Aris totelianism, which arose under the influence of Islamic theology. This period extends well into the thirteenth century and is dominated by the influence of Maimonides and the Spanish school of Jewish thinkers. It led eventually, after a long conflict between the adherents and oppo nents of Maimonides's attempt to codify the Tal mudical enactments and regulations in syste matic form, to the compilations of the codes of Joseph Karo (born 1487), known as the Shul chan Aruch (`Spread table'), which became the standard guide implicitly followed by orthodox Jews to the present time, and may be regarded as marking a sixth and final period.
In the course of the last two periods the study of the Talmud spread gradually into Southern Europe and thence made its way into Germany, Galicia, Hungary, and Russia. Commentators arose who devoted themselves to the interpreta tion of the Gemara, much as the Amoraim and Sahoraim elaborated the Mishna and super-com mentaries were added to these commentaries. The most notable of the Talmudical commen tators was Rabbi Solomon Yishaki (or Isaac), known as Bashi (q.v.), whose work, almost in
variably added to the Talmudic text, is still used as the basis of Talmudical study. A school of Talmudists arose in Germany and France during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries known as Tosaphists (`Supplementers'), whose comments are likewise written on the margins of the Tal mud—a method that follows the example of the Mohammedan theologians. Other commentators of more recent date whose works acquired a high degree of authority were Solomon Luria (d. 1573), Elijah Wilna (d. 1797): and Akiba Eger (d. 1837). From Germany, which remained for several centuries the centre of Talmudical study, that centre gradually shifted to the east of Europe, and at the present time the traditional methods of Talmudical study are still carried on with vigor in Galicia and Russia, while the centre of the scientific study of the Talmud based on adequate philological acquirements and the application of proper historical principles may be said to he Germany, whence the study is spreading into France, England, and the United States, as the value of the Talmud for the student of language, of history, and of religion is coming to be recognized. Christian theologians are also beginning to take it up, and notable contributions have been made by some of these.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. No critical edition of the enBibliography. No critical edition of the en- tire Talmud has as yet been published. The variant readings gathered from manuscripts and older editions have been published by Raphael Rabbinovicz, Sefer Dikdukc Sopherim (15 vols., Munich, 1868-86), which constitutes the basis for a future standard edition. Of translations of the Talmud into modern languages, it will be suf ficient to mention here the French translation of the Palestinian Talmud by Molse Schwab (7 vols., Paris, 1871), the German translation of the Babylonian Talmud by L. Goldschmidt (Ber lin, 1896 sqq.), and the English translation of the Babylonian Talmud by Rodkinson (New York, 1896 sqq.). An English translation of 18 treatises of the Mishua by J. Barclay was pub lished in London in 1878. Of general works on the Talmud, the following may be mentioned: I. Hamburger, Realc-ncyklopiidic fair Bibel und Talmud (Leipzig, 1886) ; Nerd. Weber, Judische Theologie auf Grund des Talmud (ib., 1897). Of monographs or articles on the Talmud, consult: Deutseh, "The Talmud," in Literary Remains, republished by the American Jew ish Publication Society (Philadelphia, 1897) ; Arshne Darmesteter, Thy Talmud (Eng. trans., Philadelphia, 1897) ; Bernfeld, Der Talmud, sein Weser', seine Bedeutu-ng and seine Ge sehichte (Berlin, 1900) ; Straek, Einleitung in den Talmud (3d ed., Leipzig, 1901), which con tains in concise form the contents of the Talmud, editions, history, and a valuable bibliography. Consult also Mielziner, Introduction to the Tal mud (2d ed., New York, 1902) ; Rodkinson, His tory of the Talmud (New York, 1903). See GEMARA ; HAGGADA ; HALACTIA;