TAOISM, tit' -ism (from Chin. tao, path, way, proper method, word, principle, reason). A religion in China which must have existed there since prehistoric times and has even at present a very strong hold upon the people. The term tao itself is clothed with a religious awe and always spoken of with great veneration, although it is frequently used in general literature in the sense of rationality, common sense, and sound judgment. The Taoists, called Tao-Sse, or teach ers of the Tao, are a religious fraternity with temples, sacred books, and a definite ritual. Their most sacred hook is "The Canon of Reason and Virtue" (Tao-tch-King), written by Li Urh, com monly called Lao-Tse (q.v.). It is a short treatise of about five thousand characters, but full of profound wisdom and sound ethics.
There must have been Taoism, however, before Lao-Tse, for he does not regard himself as the founder of a new faith, but quotes in his book many sayings of his predecessors and claims only to expound the obscure wisdom of the ancient sages. Apparently he refers to the popular traditional religion that existed at his time in China. The difference between Confucianism and Taoism corresponds to the respective characters of the two reformers. Confucius was an aspiring moral teacher and in the prime of life. while Lao Tse was famed for his wisdom and about half a century the senior of Confucius. The ambition of Confucius was to educate the nation by teach ing the people propriety, while Lao-Tse de spised all externalities and ceremonies, insisting simply and solely on a regeneration of the heart. The moral doctrines of Confucianism rest upon the recognition of authority under the name flsiao (filial piety), establishing in matters of government the principle of paternalism, but Taoism condemns all interference with the natu ral course of things and thus all statecraft, especially any and every rule by force, as con trary to the Tao, and preaches boldly the maxim of laisser-faire. In a sense Confucianism re mained victorious, for it became the officially recognized doctrine of China and the mandarins are all Confucian scholars. The two greatest disciples of Lao-Tse and the ablest expounders of Taoism were Lieh-Tse and Chwang-Tse, the former of the fourth and the latter of the third century B.C. The one is more metaphysical and speculative, the other popular and witty. Espe cially Chwang-Tse is very severe on the 'literati,' and does not shrink from ridiculing their great master, Confucius. Taoist ethics are best repre sented in the Kan-Vino-1"km, or "Book of Re wards and Punishments," a production of the fifteenth century. it first came into prominence in the sixteenth century, when it was incorpo rated in the Tao-Chang, a collection of Taoist scriptures. It contains 212 moral maxims illus
trated by stories and references to the history of the earlier Ming dynasty (A.n. 1368-1644). The distribution of this book is deemed a reli gions duty, and innumerable editions are pub lished at the expense of pious Taoists. Among the great men who were professed Taoists, Chang-Liang (died B.C. 189) deserves special mention for the important part he played in history as a councilor of Liu Pang, the founder of the Han dynasty. Taoist legends attribute to him supernatural wisdom and tell of hint many marvelous occurrences.
The word Taoism might he translated 'Ration alism,' were it not for the mystic tendencies of its adherents. Lao-Tse, Lieh-Tse, and Chwang Tse are sometimes obscure, but they remain as sober as the transcendentalists of the nineteenth century. All later Taoists, however, are mystics, Either they claim to he in possession of magic powers, or are engaged in alchemy and other occult studies. One of them, Shang-Tao-Ling, became the recognized leader of the Taoist fra ternity. He was said to have compounded and swallowed the elixir of life, whereupon lie as cended visibly to heaven. He bequeathed his secrets to his descendants, thereby establishing an hereditary Taoist papacy. The head of the fraternity is regarded as the vicegerent of God on earth and bears the title 'The Pearly Emperor of Heaven.' Through a host of priests and the great wealth at his disposal, he exercises an im mense power throughout China, which the Im perial Government is bound to respect.
The Taoist priests of to-day know very little of Lao-Tse. They attend to the spiritual needs of the people, which are not very high. They tell fortunes, determine lucky and days, and regulate popular feasts. For divination, they use the Kwa, a system of trigrams of broken and unbroken lines which are determined with Shih sticks (see PAR-KwA), and for the determina tion of days they use an astrological device, called lo-pan, or table of the net, because it resembles a cobweb. in which certain symbols are arranged in concentric circles 'round a compass.
Consult: Julien. Klram-Ing-Pien, Le livrc des recompenses et des print's (Paris, 1835) ; Lao-tseu-Tao-Te-King, Le here de la roie of de la vertu (ib., 1842) ; Carus, Lao-tze's Tao-tch-Kina (Chicago, 1898) : Douglas, Confucianism and Taoism (London. 1879) ; Legge. Reif/go-us of China (ih., 1881) : id.. "Texts of Taoism," in Muller, Sacred Books of the East, vols. xxxix., xl. (Oxford, 189] ) ; Balfour, Taoist Texts, Ethical, Political. and Speculative (London, 1885) ; Har lez, Te.ntes Tonistcs (Paris, 1891) ; Le Taoism(' (ib.. 1892),