The war might have ended with this local struggle, but the outrageous treatment to which the Protestant States of North Germany were subjected pressed the conflict on to its second phase. Christian IV. of Denmark, aided by a British subsidy. went to the aid of his German co-religionists in 1625, and being joined by Mans feld and Christian of Brunswick, advanced into Lower Saxony, while the Emperor, hampered by the political jealousy of the Catholic League, was at first unable to oppose him. It was at this juncture that Wallenstein came forward and placed a great army, raised by himself, at the disposal of Ferdinand. This army acted in codperation with that of the Catholic League under Tilly. Mansfeld w•as completely defeated by Wallenstein at Dessau (April 25, 1626), and the forces of Christian 1V. were routed by Tilly at Lotter (August 27, 162n). Wallenstein marched as far as Hungary in pursuit of Mans feld, who died in November, 1626. The combined Imperialists and Leaguers overran North Ger many and Wallenstein penetrated into the heart of Denmark. The Imperialist commander con ceived the design of making Austria a power on the Baltic. hilt his career in this direction was checked by the heroic defense of Stralsund (162S). King Christian was forced to conclude the humiliating peace of Lilbeck (Slay 12, 1629). Inflamed by his success, Ferdinand had, on March 6, 1629. issued the Edict of Restitution, by which the Protestant titles to all ecclesias tical lands acquired after 1552 were declared void. Thus closed the second period of the war, with the Protestant States infuriated by the edict and the proud city of Magdeburg alone in arms to resist its execution.
Richelieu (q.v.). developing the anti-Hapsburg policy of Henry IV., had promoted, as far as the internal affairs of France would allow. the dis sensions in Germany. He now succeeded in bringing into the struggle the able and ambitious Protestant King of Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus (q.v.). This ruler, desirous of promoting Prot estantism and of securing the control of the Baltic, took the field, and the Swedish phase of the war began with the landing of the Swedes on the coast of Pomerania in the summer of 1630. Just at this time the princes of the Catholic League, exasperated by the overhearing conduct of Wallenstein and the excesses of his soldiery, forced the Emperor to dismiss him, Tilly being made commander-in-chief of the Catholic forces. Gustavus Adolphus, who in January, 1631, entered into a subsidiary alliance with France, advanced southward into Germany. The electors of Saxony and Brandenburg at first remained neut nil, but finally were forced to join him. The obstacles in his path delayed him until it was too late to rescue Magdeburg, which on May 20, 1631, was stormed by 'filly and Pap penheim, whose troops burned the town and massacred the inhabitants. On September 17 (old style, September 7), 1631, the Swedish King, strengthened by the Saxon army under Arnim, overwhelmed Tilly at Breitenfeld, near Leipzig, a victory which completely restored the Prot estant cause. Tie then victoriously traversed the Slain and Rhine valleys; forced the passage of the Lech in front of the army of Tilly. who was mortally wounded ( April 15, 1632); entered Munich, and threatened the Hapsburg dominions. Wallenstein, meanwhile, had been recalled to raise and command the Imperialist armies to meet this formidable enemy. Be compelled the Swedes by skillful strategy, to return to Saxony. There the Swedes won the battle of Ijitzen (q.v.), November 16 (old style, November 6), 1632, after an obstinate engagement in which Gustavus was killed. His death was a severe blow to the Protestant cause, but the energy and ability of the Swedish Chancellor, Oxenstierna (q.v.), and the brilliant talents of the Swedish generals, preserved the advantages that had been gained. After the battle of Liitzen Wallen stein remained long inactive, engaging in endless negotiations. Bernhard (q.v.) of Saxe-Weimar, one of the ablest of the Protestant leaders, over ran Bavaria, and on November 14, 1633, stormed Ratisbon. The behavior of Wallenstein, after a display of activity, inaugurated by a victory over the Swedes at Steinan, October 13, 1633, finally left no doubt in the mind of Ferdinand II. that his general was meditating treason. lie was deposed from his command and was as sassinated at Eger in Bohemia, on February 25, 1634. His virtual successor, Gallas, inflicted a
crushing defeat on Bernhard of Weimar and the Swedish general, Horn, at Nin•dlingen (Septem ber 6, 1634) which again restored to the Em peror a preponderating influence in Germany. Saxony now made peace at Prague (May 30. 1635), the Elector securing important territorial gains. Other Lutheran States withdrew from the conflict. the Calvinists being left to their fate.
Final success now• appeared to demand only one more strenuous effort on the part of Austria; but Oxenstierna was determined to preserve to Sweden her German acquisitions, and Richelieu saw that the time had come for France to throw herself into an active struggle against both Aus tria and Spain. The conflict advanced into its final and most extended phase. At first the Hapsburg side was enabled to make a show of strength, France being invaded by a combined force of Spaniards. Imperialists. and Lotharin glans, hut with such commanders on their side as Bernhard of Weimar and the Swedish general the tide soon set in strongly in favor of the Protestants. The victory of Ban5r over the Imperialists and Saxons at Wittstock (October 4. 1636) restored to Sweden the advantage lost two years before. Bernhard of Weimar, in the pay of France, fought with energy and success, ambitious to found a State for himself. In 163S he won a victory at Rheinfelden and succeeded in reducing the fortress of Breisach, but in the following year he met with an untimely death. In February, 1637, the Emperor Ferdinand H. died and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand III. After the death of Ban r, in 1641, the Swedish arms were led to fresh triumphs by Turstenson. a general famous for the rapidity of his movements. He defeated the Archduke Leopold William and Piecolomini at Breitenfeld on _November 2, 1642; in 1644 he overran Den mark, whose ruler. Christian IV., had been in duced to take up arms against Sweden; in the same year he defeated Gallas at Jilterbock; and on March 6, 1645. he won a great victory over the Imperialists, under Hatzfeld, at Jankan, in Southern Bohemia. His repeated invasions car ried devastation and ruin into the territories, even to the gates of Vienna. until the Austrians hardly dared appear to the north of the Danube. In the meanwhile, in the west and south, the French were waging war with varying success. In January, 1642, they were successful at Kem pen. near Dtisseldorf, and in May, 1643, the Duke d'Enghien (the future Condo) won a sig nal victory over the Spaniards at Rocroi, but on November 24, 1643, the French-Weimar forces suffered a great defeat at Tuttlingen, in Swabia, at the hands of Johann von Werth and Alercy. Conde and Turenne restored the fortunes of the French by a victory at Allersheim, near Niird August 3, 1645. The Emperor was now deserted by all his allies except the Duke of Bavaria, whose territories were already mostly in the hands of Turenne and the Swedish gen eral Wrangel; and a combined invasion of Aus tria from the west and north was on the point of being executed, when the diplomatic represen tatives of the different governments, who had been at work for seven years at Munster, in 1Vestphalia. and at Osnabruck, agreed upon terms of peace which closed the struggle. See WESTPHALIA, PEACE OF.
Aside from the political disintegration of Ger many which resulted from the war, the thirty years' struggle had brought desolation upon the country. Scarcely any part of the Empire had escaped the horrors of the conflict, and the people had been made the victims of an un bridled and licentious soldiery whose excesses have remained in popular memory to the pres ent day. Whole regions were laid waste, pros perous towns were wiped out. commerce and industry were destroyed. Germany lost half of her population and two-thirds of her wealth, while in some regions the decrease in population rose to two-thirds, as in Bohemia, or even higher. Religion and morality sank to a low ebb. and the loss entailed on the intellectual side was one which it took generations to make good.
Consult: Gardiner, The Thirty Years' War (London, 1674), a convenient and reliable brief account: Clindely, Geachiehte des dreiskigkiihr igen Kricgs (Prague, 1669-SO), trans. by Ten Brook (New York. 1SS4). by a recognized au thority, a Bohemian, who made this his life study. Consult also references under GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS; RICHELIEU; WALLENSTEIN. etc.