TRADE UNIONS IN ()TILER COUNTRIES. While probably the germs of labor organizations in al most every country of Continental Europe may he found in earlier and even in medieval organiza tions and movements, they owe their present strength, spirit, and methods chiefly to the socialistic propaganda ; most of them have re mained in close connection with the Social Democratic parties, and many of them—partie nlarly in France, Belgium, Italy, and the Scan dinavian countries—are as lunch political clubs as trade unions. (See SOCIALISM.) There are, however, a number of strict trade unions on the Continent—particularly among the printers—and this number is continually increasing. As the Continental labor union grows older and more powerful, it manifests a stronger disinclination to be treated as a mere appendage of a political party. The Continental union was late in de veloping. The year 1864, which marks the forma tion of the International Workingmen's Associa tion (see 1NTERNATIoNALE), furnishes a substan tially accurate date for the beginning of the trade union movement on the Continent.
The political character of Continental unionism has decreased its efficiency by dividing the forces of labor into several semi-hostile groups. In Germany, for instance, we find the labor organi zations divided into three distinct classes: A group of 'peace' unions, known as the Hirsch Dunckersche Geuvorkvereine, with 88,279 mem bers (in 1898), assert the essential harmony of interests between employers and employees and depend upon arbitration and friendly benefits rather than strikes for the improvement of the conditions of employment. Clearly distinguished from the former by their aggressive methods in general are the socialistic Getvcrkschaften, which in turn are divided into two groups over the question of direct participation in politics: the unions federated under the Central Commission (with 493,742 members) advocating a separation of the labor and the socialistic movements, and the local organizations (with 17.500 members
approximately) opposed to this separation. The Christian, Unions, with 161.517 members, con stitute a third class distinct front and opposed to the preceding groups by their anti-socialistic principles. In Belgium the labor organizations are practically dominated by the political parties. In France the factional quarrels of the socialists have been carried into the labor organizations. with the consequence that in al most every city the trades are grouped into several hostile unions whose antagonism makes unity of action almost impossible. In Australia, on the other hand, where according to some au thorities as many as 75 per cent. of the male workingmen belong to trade unions, and where the unions have secured a large proportion of their victories by political action, socialism has made little headway.
With the view of giving some idea of the be ginning and extent of labor organization in the various Continental countries, the following tab ular statement has been prepared. It is almost impossible to distinguish the labor organizations from the political clubs and fraternal associa tions in many countries, so that the figures must be interpreted as rough estimates of the extent of labor organization in the several countries rather than exact statistical measurements.
industrial union is merely a centralized union, in which are united all the workers of any one industry, irrespective of trade or occupation. The United Aline Workers, for instance, aim to coa lesce in the same local union all wage-earners "working in and about the mines except mine manager and top boss." There are also industrial unions which do not aim to unite all classes of workmen in the same locals, but which attempt to unite local unions of the different trades in a single national body. The latter are to be re garded as federations of trade unions, rather