In Germany, the most important recent work upon the atonement has been that of Ritschl (Justification and Atonement, 1874, Eng. trans., Edinburgh, )900), in which it is maintained that the fundamental element of the Gospel is that God is already propitious to men. Hence, the death of Christ does not perform any work of propitiation. It is rather a 'covenant offering,' a declaration upon Christ's part that He would at any price—even that of death—maintain the covenant and obey God perfectly, and a pledge given by Him in behalf of His followers that they would do the same. The course of subse quent work in this department has been to lay renewed emphasis upon the ethical element in Christ's work, and to revert to the old theories ethically interpreted. Kaftan renews the em phasis upon the idea of punishment (Dogmatik, 1897), and maintains that, for reasons lying in our whole educational development, God must, in connection with the act of forgiveness, so manifest his moral earnestness in reference to sin as to make upon us the right moral impres sion. Christ does not bear 'the penalty for sin which was due to man,' but He bore 'what entered the world as consequence and punish ment for our sin,' and this, 'because it was the means of the revelation of the divine love, freed us from punishment and conferred upon us salvation.'
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The reader is referred, for furBibliography. The reader is referred, for fur- ther and fuller information on this subject, to the following additional works: Baur, Chri.stlichc Lehre von der l'ersiihnung (Tubingen, 183S) ; Hase, Ilutterus Redivivus (Leipzig, 1827, 12th ed., 1883) ; Neander, Christ/lc/1e Dogmenge schiehte (Berlin, 1857) ; Hagenhach, Lchrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (Leipzig, IS40) ; J. J. Tay lor, Christian Aspects of Faith and Duty (New York, 1851) ; Maurice, Theological Essays (Lon don, 1853) ; Jewett, Saint Paul's Epistles (Lon don, 1855) ; Trench, Fire Sermons (Cambridge, Eng., 1843) ; Shedd, History of Christian Doc trine, 5th ed. (New York, 1867) ; A. A. Hodge, The Atonement (London, 1886) ; Park, collection of Discourses and Treatises (Andover, 1889) ; R. W. Dale, The Atonement (London, 1885) ; H. N. Oxenham, The Catholic Doctrine of the Atone ment (London, ISS1).