The non-Semitic elements of the population of this region were almost beyond a doubt related to the primitive Aryan tribes of Asia 1\-linor and the peoples of the Caucasus; and if one is to go beyond the Semites, the Aryans may be, as Brinton suggested (1895), the real fathers of all this culture. The derivation of Chinese civil ization direct from the Babylonian is an un proved theory strongly advocated in some quar ters. The ra ifieations of Babylonian culture went all over Western Asia, and even reached out into ancient Europe and Africa. It was in digenous, and not borrowed from the Egyptian.
The writing used in ltabyhmia. from the earli est period down through the times of the Greek supremacy, was a derivative of a pictorial form, which in the course of time became largely linear. Owing to the peculiar shape taken on by the lines, so that they resembled wedges rather than lines.—a tendency which develops at a com paratively late period and is due largely to the influence on the script of clay used as the com mon writing inaterial,—the writing is commonly known as cuneiform—i.e. wedge-shaped. (See CUNEIFORM I NscRi•riwcs.) While (day was the ordinary material for writing (for recording commercial transactions, for the religious litera ture, for correspondence. and largely for official annals), the earliest inscriptions (usually of a votive or commemorative character) are on stone: and in later times we find also metals (gold, silver, bronze. etc.) employed as well as stone. The Babylonian literature, known to us largely through late copies made by Assyrian kings, notably Assurbanipal (see ASSYRIA). is exceedingly extensive and dates hack to at least B.C. 2050. It consists largely of hymns, prayers, omens, incantations, but contains also epics, myths. and legends, and for later periods histor ical annals. Besides, while not properly litera ture. we have large collections in European and American museums of commercial and legal tab lets which formed part of the archives of the temples of ancient Babylonia. Through these tablets, ranging front e.3000 B.C. to the second century B.C., we obtain a remarkable insight into the private and public life, social legal procedures, and political organization pre vailing in Babylonia, while the votive commem oratory inscriptions and annals enable us to trace the political history of the country, though for many centuries the material is yet quite in sofficient.
All this material has been brought to light through the excavations conducted during the past fifty years in the mounds that cover the site of the ancient cities of Babylonia. While exca vations in Assyria were begun as early as 1842 (s7ee AssvmA). the first Babylonian mound was not opened till 1854. in which year Sir Henry Itawlinson began excavating at Bins (the ancient Borsippa, q.v.). In 1851-54, a French expedition under the direction of Fresnel and Oppert conducted excavations in the south, while Rawlinsou continued work at Nippur, Warka. and ,Alugheir, thong]] not very thoroughly. During 1878.85 Hormuzd Rassam conducted systematic excavations at various places. notably at Abu Habba (the ancient Sippar ) for the benefit of the British 3,4useum, and in 1881 excavations were begun on a large scale by Ernest de Sarzee at Tel-lo for the French Government, which are still hieing continued. They threw much light on
the earlier period of Babylonian history; but through the American excavations, conducted by the University of Pennsylvania from 1887 to late, documents were found which curry us back to a still earlier period. Besides inscriptions, sculptures. inmanients. utensils, seal cylinders. and various other objects, have been found of great importance for Babyhmian archeology, but much still remains to be done. In 1800, the German Government began a series of excava tions on the site of the city of "Babylon itself• which have already yielded rich results, and another Americans expedition was organized in 1900-01 which proposes t- undertake systematie excavations at .Mughcir (the ancient Ur of the Chaldees). There remain, however, many im portant sites which have not yet been touehed, and until these shall have been examined and made to yield up the treasures which they hold, the reconstruction of Babylonian history, par ticularly of the earlier periods, will neeessaril be imperfect, and to a certain extent hypo thetical.
The earliest period to which the history of the country can be traced back may now" lie fixed with sonic degree of certainty at B.C. 4500. _\t that time, and down to c.2300 B.C., Babylonia was 41 ivided up among a varying number of States more or less independent, though at one exereised a measure of supremacy over the others. Among the cities that enjoy a prom inence at this early period are Nippur. Lagash, Ur, Eridu. Erech, and Lassa in the south, and Sippar, Aga de, Kish, and ]Babylon in the north. The oldest ruler now known to us is En-Shag Kushanna. who calls himself 'lord of Kengi,' by which at that time Southern Babylonia was in dicated: but while thus exercising a supremacy over a considerable distriet, this ruler is far from governing all of Babylonia. There is at this saine period an important centre, Kish in North ern Babylonia. which forms a rival to the south ern kingdom. An inscription of En-Shag-Kush anna records the latter's victory over Kish. The rivalry, however, continued, for somewhat later we find a king of Kish exercising authority over Lagash. We encounter another interesting per sonage in this early period in Lugalzaggisi, whose date may he fixed approximately at mt. 4000. The capital of this ruler's kingdom is Ereeh (the modern Mirka) ; but, proudly call ing himself 'king of the world; lie claims to rule frOm the Lower Sea (the Persian Gulf) to the Upper Sea (Lake of Van). How far this boast is justified it is difficult to say; but if Lugal zaggisi's rule really included so large a territory. it was not of long duration; for we find, at a period contemporaneous, a continuous series of rulers at Lagash who call themselves kings. and who reach back almost to the time of En-Shag Koshanna. All through this early period Nippur occupies a rather unique position. As one of the religious centres of the country, it is to the god of Nippur that all rulers pay homage, and it is to him that they ascribe their victories. To control 'Nippur, therefore, appears to have been an ambition of the rulers—if not, indeed, a neces sary condition to their being acknowledged as supreme. The position of the place on the dividing line between northern and southern Babylonia had probably noel to do with the prominence that it achieved.