Ccesar next subdued Pompeius's legates in Spain, who were at the head of considerable forces. On his return he took \lassihia. seilles), where he learned that he had been ap pointed dictator of the Republic—a function which at this time he retained for only eleven days; but these were honorably distinguished by the passing, of several humane enactments. Pompeii's, now thoroughly alive to the magni tude of his danger, had gathered a powerful army in Egypt, Greece, and the East, while his fleet swept the sea. Caesar, however, crossing the Adriatic at an unexpected season, hastened to Dyrrhachium, where Pompeins's stores were; but was nevertheless outstripped by his oppo nent. Pompeins intrenehed his army upon some high ground near the city, where he was be sieged by Cresar. The first encounter was favor able to Pompeius, who drove back Cesar s legions with much loss. The latter now retreat ed to Thessalv, followed by his exulting enemies. A second battle ensued on the plains of Phar salia, August 9, B.C. 45. Pompeius's army was utterly routed and Pompeius himself fled to Egypt. where lie was treacherously murdered. See PomPEnTs.
No sooner had the news reached Rome than Caesar was again appointed dictator for one year, and consul for five years. He was invested with tribunitial power for life, and with the right of holding all the magisterial comitia except those for the election of the plebeian tribunes. He did not, however, return to Dome after the battle of Pharsalia, hut went to Egypt, then in a dis tracted condition on account of the disputes re garding the succession. Out of love for Cleo patra (who subsequently bore him a son), he entered upon the 'Alexandrine War,' in which he was successful, and which he hi-ought to a close in March, B.C. 47. He next overthrew Pharnaces, King of Bosporus, son of Mith ridates, near Zela, in Pontus, August 2d of the same year, and arrived in Rome in Sep tember. He was once more appointed dictator, and the property of Pompeius was confiscated and sold. Before the close of the year he had set out for Africa. where his campaign against the Pompeian generals, Scipio and Cato, was crowned with victory at the battle of Thap sus, April 6, B.C. 46. Cato committed suicide at Utica; and with such irresistible celerity was the work of subjugation carried on. that by the end of the slimmer Caesar was again in Rome. Now occurred that display of noble and wise generosity which proves Caesar to have been possessed of a great, magnanimous nature. He was not a man that could stoop to the vulgar atrocities of or Sulla, and so he majes tically declared that henceforth he had no ene mies, and that he would make no difference be tween Pompeians and Clesarians. His victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontris, and Africa were cele brated by four great triumphs, during which the whole Roman populace was feasted and feted by the magnificent liberality of the dic tator.
Ile now proceeded to cheek, by wholesale en aetments, as far as in him lay, the social evils which had long flourished in the city. During the year 'Lc. 46, also, he conferred a benefit on Rome and on the world by the reformation of the calendar, which had been greatly abused by the Pontifical College for political purposes.
In the meanwhile Pompeins's sons, Gneills and Sextus, were in arms in Spain. Cesar over whelmed their forces at Munda (me. 45). He now received the title of 'Father of his Country.' and also of imprrator: was .inade dictator and prafeet us moruni for life, and consul for ten years: his person was declared sacred, and even divine: he obtained a bodyguard of knights and senators; his statue was placed in the temples: his portrait was struck on coins: the month Quintilis was called Julius in his honor: and on all public occasions he was permitted to wear the triumphal robe. Be now proposed to make a.
digest of the whole Boman la \N" for public use: to found libraries for the same purpose; to drain the Pontine marshes: to enlarge the harbor of Ostia; to dig a canal through the Isthmus of Corinth: and to quell the inroads of the bar barians on the eastern frontiers. But in the midst of these vast designs he was cut off by assassination, on the Ides (15th) of March, n.c. 44. The details of this crone—the greatest disaster that could have befallen the Roman world, as subsequent events made plain—are too familiar to require narration. It is sufficient to say that of the sixty aristocrats who were in the conspiracy, many had partaken of Caesar's generosity, and all of his clemency. A few, like Brutus, out of a weak and formal conscien tiousness, based on theory rather than insight, were probably shocked by ('esar's desire to change the form of government into an hereditary monarehy; but most of them, like Cassius, were inspired by a jealous hatred of the dictator, and the base ambition of regaining power at all hazards.
Cdpsar, who was 56 years of age when he was murdered, was of a noble and kingly presence, tall of stature, and possessing a countenance which, though pale and thin with thought, was always animated by the light of his black eyes. He was bald-headed (at least, in the latter part of his life), wore no beard; and though of a rather delicate constitution naturally, he ultimately attained to the most vigorous health. His be setting sin was sensuality; but without meaning to detract from the criminality of his conduct in this respect, it may be said that it was as much the sin of the times in which he lived as his own, and that the superlative grandeur of his position gave a prominence to his licentious ness which a more humble lot would have es caped. His intellect was marvelously versatile. In everything he excelled. He was not only the first general and statesman of his age, but he was—excepting Cicero—its greatest orator. As an historian he has never been surpassed, and rarely equaled in simplicity and vigor of style, and in the truthfulness with which he narrates events of which he was an eyewitness. He was, moreover. a mathematician, philologist, jurist, and architect, and always took great pleasure in literary society. Most of his writings have been lost, though their titles arc preserved; yet we still possess his invaluable Commentarii (generally known as Commentaries on the Gallic and Civil Wars''). The (Wilk) prin reps was printed at llome (1419). 'Fhe best edi tion of his works is that of Hinter (Leipzig, I590). Caesar's life was formally written in an cient times by Sue tonics and Plutarch. Consult, also: Delorme, (Ysar et Contemporains, etc. (Paris, ISOS) ; Napoleon III., Histoirc de Jules ('tsar (Paris. 1865-66) ; Stoffel, id., La Guerre virile ( Paris, 1888) ; Froude, Cesar (London, 1879) ; Dodge, "Caesar," in Great Captains Series (Boston, 1892) : and Fowler, Julius Cwsar and the Foundation of the Roman Im perial System (New York, 1892). On the Gallic campaigns, consult Holmes, Cwsar's Conquest of Gaul (London, 1899).