There is no ministerial responsibility under the Imperial Constitution of Germany, nor is the parliamentary opposition organized as it is in the United States and England. Bismarek never came to believe in the wisdom of popular majori ties or control by a partisan Parliament. Ile saw the necessity of a popular basis for at strong government, hut he believed above all in a strong executive. And the necessity of German unity was always uppermost in his mind. The promul gation of the doctrine of Papal infallibility by the Vatican Connell of 1870 was odious to him as tending to weaken the loyalty of the German Catholics. in no sense intolerant of religions as such, he was opposed to any political religious organizations within the State, and he main tained this position both as Prussian Minister and as Imperial Chancellor. In January, 1873, he caused the introduction into the Prussian Diet of certain laws to regulate the relations of Church :11111 State. Thus was brought on the six-years' struggle with the Clericals, known as the K ulturkmapf (q.v.), in which Bismarck made the great mistake of his career, carrying his measures so far that in the inevitable reac tion lie was forced to acknowledge a virtual defeat. Bismarck's position seems to have been simply that of defending the authority of the State against outside interference. In 187). re plying to a Catholic attack in the Prussian Diet, Bisnmrek stated his principles clearly, acknowl edging his duty to respect the dogmas of the Catholic Church merely as dogmas. and add ing: "If the doctrine of infallibility be so in terpreted as to lead to the estaldishment of an ecelesiastieal in imperio if it lead to the nullification of the laws of this coun try because unapproved by the Vatican, I am naturally driven to assert the legitimate su premacy of the State. We Protestants are under the conviction that the kingdom of Prussia ought not to be ruled by the Pope, and we de mand that you, the t Itramontane section of the Roman Catholics, respect our convictions as we do yours." The controversy led to an attempt upon Bismarek's life by a mechanic named Null mann, in I574. Finally, however, Ultramontane resistance drove Bismarck into an attitude of intolerance which proved untenable. Personally he had passed through four stages in his reli gious views, having arrived through rationalism, skepticism, and conventional Christianity at a profound religious conviction, with a firm faith in God and immortality. He was tolerant be cause lie eared little for creeds and outward forms.
An equally difficult problem confronted Bis marck in the growing power of the Socialists. Two attempts on the life of the Emperor in 1578, by avowed Socialists, enabled the Chancel lor to overcome the scruples of the Liberals in the Reichstag, and to secure the passage of special laws for toe suppression of socialistic agitation. The Aulturkampf had brought Bismarck into al liance with the National Liberals; his conserva tive tendemies broke this alliance, and he came to an understanding with the Conservatives and Catholics. Now that lie had suppressed the po litical activity of the Socialists for the time being, Bismarck very characteristically gave his attention to the movement by making many features of the Socialist programme his own, and he initiated a policy of paternalism, which was considered not far removed from State Socialism in some of its aspects. The most nota ble of the laws passed to placate the working classes were the sickness, accident, and old-age insurance acts of ISS3•ISS0.
With the industrial and commercial develop ment of the Empire, the time seemed ripe for expansion beyond the seas, and in 1554 Bismarck entered upon his colonial policy, at first half heartedly. In a speech before the Reichstag,
June 26, ISS4, he declared his opposition to forced colonization, and his willingness to sup port only such a colonial policy as grew out of the need of protecting German subjects in for eign lands. Ile favored leaving the management of affairs largely to chartered trailing compa nies. and added: "It is not our intention to found provinces, bnt to foster commercial enterprise." To stimulate industry and thereby to cheek the continuous emigration from Germany, Bismarck advocated a protective tariff. To settle the Afri• can question. as raised by the work of the Inter national African Association, he arranged it con ference at Berlin in 15S4-55, which secured the recognition of the Congo Free State and laid down the lines upon which the partition of Africa has been effected. Bismarek was the author of the policy of subsidizing steamship lines from Germany to Asia, Africa, and Australasia. lie never changed the conservative views on coloniza tion that he had expressed in ISM, although cir cumstances forced him into action hardly con sistent with those views. As early as 1565 he had advocated the Baltic and North Sea Canal, which was constructed after his retirement.
The genius of Bismarck was always most con spicuous in international affairs. Ile deliber ately brought on three wars—with Denmark, Austria, and Franee—in order to further the great consummation of German unity. The German Empire once established, the great Chan cellor's policy became one of peace. He avoided entangling Germany in the Eastern Question; but when the rivals of Russia were aroused by the Treaty of San Stefano, in 1S7S, he asserted Germany's leadership in Europe by inviting an international congress to meet at Berlin. (See BERLIN, CONGRESS OF'.) He formed the Triple Alliance to secure Germany against both France and Russia. but at the same time maintained the most friendly relations with Russia. France he did not regard as a serious competitor of Germany after 1571. His matured convictions in regard to Germany's position are set forth in his autobiography. In that work, after some 'observations on Russia's relations to the Eastern Question, he observed that if Russia failed to receive assurance of German neutrality, the old coalition of the Seven Years' War—the alliance, that is, of Austria, Russia, and France against Prussia—might be revived. "If Germany pos sesses the advantage," he said, "of having no direct interests at stake in the East, she labors on the other hand under the disadvantage of an exposed position in the heart of Europe, with an extended frontier, which has to be defended on every side, and surrounded by enemies ready to enter into alliance against her. At the same time, Germany is, perhaps, the only great Power in Eu rope which is not tempted by objects unattain able except through war. It is our interest to maintain peace, while our Continental neighbors, without exception, foster ambitions, either secret or officially avowed, which can be realized only by war. We must direct our policy in accord ance with these facts—that is, we must do our best to prevent war, or at least to restrict it." Bismarek's largeness of view and freedom from petty enmity is shown by his efforts, as soon as Austria had been beaten at Sadowa, to estab lish friendly relations between that Power and Germany. A man of strong passions, he allowed no prejudice to blind him to the requirements of sound national policy.