CASUISTRY, kfizln-is-tri (from casuist. Fr. casuistc. from Lat. rases, instance). The science which guides the human conscience in the fulfill ment of its duties. As doubts occur, either as to the retlity or extent or urgency of the laws by which it is governed, 'eases' come up which have to be judged. That part of theology which deals with such matters is called moral theology. Casuistry developed as circumstances called for new and clearer interpretations of divine and human enactments. In the first centuries it was extremely simple, and the treatises on it con sisted mainly of conciliar decrees, or collections of penitential canoes such as those attributed to Saint Gregory Thanniaturgus, Saint Peter of Alexandria, Saint Basil, and Saint Gregory of Nyssa. From the Seventh to the Eleventh Cen tury the work known as The Penitential Book, which was a digest of canons, sentences, and de crees, was the manual commonly used. But moral theology proper began with the Sehoolmen of the Thirteenth Century. The most noteworthy of the treatises then written was the Sum mo tic Casibus Particutaribus (c.1'23S), of Saint Ray mond of Pefiaforte. tither conspicuous casuists of the century were the Englishman Alexander of Hales, Vincent of Beauvais, and John of God. In the Fourteenth Century we have John of Freiburg, Astensis. Monaldus, Bartholomew:.
Iligdenns, and, most famous of all Joanne; de Bur7o. in the Fifteenth Century, Ger son's famous tivusentum enjoyed the greatest reputation. Saint Bernanline of Sien na. Saint John Capistran. and Saint Anioninns also wrote on moral subjects. BM the one who has exercised the widest influence is. of course, Saint Thomas Aquinas, who in his Scrunda Nrcicada' treats of moral theology in its organic connection with dogma. Its strictly scientific character, however, makes it somewhat unavail able as a manna] for e0/»111011 use. Making this science practical was the achievement of the Six teenth Century. The extraordinary development of this particular branch of theological knowledge was largely due to the doctrine of Probabilism.
This was not a now doctrine, but it was inau gurated as a system by a Spanish named Medina. The theory may he thus stated: A man in doubt about the la Ny fulness of an act has solid reasons for thinking it is lawful. These reasons may be intrinsic to the matter itself, or extrinsic, namely, the authority of some respect able theologian. But there may- be contrary rya sons of equal or greater weight than those in favor of it. Which course is he to elect ? Prob abilism teaches that. he is free to do as he chooses, provided his reasons for acting be genuine and solid. Ile proceeds on the principle that as the law is not certain, either as to its existence or its binding force, he is free: for no one is bound by a doubtful obligation. This liberty, however, is
restricted if for sonic major obligation he is bound to take every reasonable means to achieve a certain object. A cannot discharge his rifle where it is merely probable no one will lie hit: he must take every reasonable precaution; a Catho lic priest cannot act on the doctrine of probabil ity where there is question of the validity of a sacrament. But apart from these antecedent ob ligations of justice. charity. and religion. Prob abilism leaves a man free when he has good rea sons for judging that he is doing right.
Against this doctrine four schools were ar rayed: the Tutiorists or Rigorists, who were either absolute or mitigated, the former requiring absolute certainty. the latter the greatest prob ability; the Probabiliorists, who taught that in eases of doubt a man should always follow the safer course: the .Equiprobabilists, who al lowed liberty of action only when the reasons pro and con Were evenly balanced. but modified that concession by saying that when the exist ence of the law was certain or even more prob able, there could be no liberty against it, for the law being certainly or more probably in posses sion exacted fulfillment: the Laxists, who con tended that one is free to net if he has even a slight reason to conclude that he is in the right. The Laxists were condemned by innorent XI., and the Absolute Tutiorists by V11, On these lines a fierce and theo logical battle began, which filially narrowed down to a contest between the Probabiliorists and the Probabilists From 1580 to 1650 Probabilism held possession. After that a reaction set in. and Probabiliorism Was the favorite doet•ine. At present the eonditions have reverted to what they were in the beginning, and Probnbilism almost everywhere prevails in the Roman Catholic Church. The chief exponents are Saint Alpinin sus Liguori, Seavini. Envy, and Ballerini.
The acrimony of these debates gays rise to the which have been affixed to the word Casuistry. After the accusations of the Jansenists (see PAsteAL: .1 .% xsEN ceased about the middle of the Eighteenth Century. many Protestant writers tank them Hp and demon need the easnist•y of Proliabilisin as lax, equivoelting, permitting the most detestable crimes, and outraging the most sacred obliga tions. charges, 110 longer seriously made by intelligent students. have given rise to the secondary meaning of the word Casuistry as, according to some, a method of over-subtle, so phistical, and dishonest reasoning for the pur pose of evading the law; others regard it as an elimination of individual reason and conscience, and a blind submission to authority.