COUNCIL (OF. coneile, euneilic, Lat. roncil ium, from corn-, together -j- calare, Gk. eaXtJv, kalcin, to call, 011G. imion, Ger. holm AS. geholian, Engl. hale, to summon). An assembly of ecclesiastical dignitaries held for the purpose of regulating the doctrine or discipline of the Church. As early as the second century Church conneils were convened in which only one or two provinces took part, the bishops and presbyters binding themselves to carry out the decisions ar rived at in their own communities. These assem blies were commonly held in the chief town or metropolis of the province, and the bishops of such capitals—who, after the third century, bore the title of metropolitan—were wont to preside over the meetings, and to consider questions of doctrine and discipline which had arisen within the territory. Over these metropolitan councils were established, at a later period, the provincial synods, exercising authority over several united provinces, and finally, the national councils. After the fourth century, when the Christian re ligion established in the Roman Empire, we read of ecumenical, i.e. universal councils, so called because all the bishops of Christendom were invited or summoned by the Emperor. In sonic early synods we find bishops, presbyters, and others taking part in the deliberations: but after the opening of the fourth century only the bishops were convened. According to the doc trine of the Roman Catholic Church, the Pope alone, or, by way of exception, in some cases the college of cardinals, had the power of convening ecumenical councils, which, in the Catholic view, represent the universal Church under the guid ance of the Holy Ghost. Questions were deter mined by the majority of votes, and the Pope or his proxy presided and confirmed the resolu tions carried in the synod. In matters of faith, the Holy Scriptures end the traditions of the Church were the guide; while in lighter mat ters, human reason and expediency were consult ed. In the former, ecumenical councils are held to be infallible, but in other matters of disci pline, etc., the latest synod decides questions. The question of the Pope's subordination to the decrees of the ecumenical councils was long and warmly debated during the Middle Ages, but is not asserted by any Roman Catholic theologian to-day.
Twenty ecumenical councils are recognized by the Roman Catholic Church: (1) The first Coun cil of Nicai, held A.D. 325, in the height of the Arian controversy to define the doctrine of the Godhead of Christ, and to settle the proper time of keeping Easter against the Quartodecimans. (2) The first Council of Con stantinople (3S1) completed the Nicene symbol by the definition of the Godhead of the Holy Ghost. (3) The Council of Ephesus (431) de fined the unity of person in God the Son, against Nesto•ins, and guarded the definition by apply ing the term 6£076K0f, theotokos, to His mother. (4) The Council of Chaleedon (451), against the opposite heresy of Entyches, asserted the two fold nature of Christ. (5) The second Council of Constantinople (553) condemned some sur vivals of Nestorianism. (6) The third Council of Constantinople (680-31) condemned the Mo nothelites. (7) The second Council of NiC:PR (7S7) was directed against the iconoclasts and defined the respect to be paid to images. (8) The fourth Council of Constantinople (S69-70) was called to secure the peace of the Eastern and Western churches, by the deposition of Photius, who had unjustly intruded into the see of Con stantinople. The following councils, all held in the West, were subsequent to the schism between the Eastern and Western churches, and arc con sequently not recognized as ecumenical by East erns or by Anglicans. Over the next seven coun cils, fon• held in Rome and three in southern France, the popes presided in person, without Imperial cooperation; they were held now, not so much to condemn heresy as to deal with other pressing needs of the Church, such as the en croachments of the Imperial power and reform in ecclesiastical discipline. (9) The first Lateran
Council (1123) was called to settle the dispute between the spiritual and temporal powers on the question of investiture. (10) The second Lateran Council (1139) condemned the errors of Arnold of Brescia and others. ( I 1) The third Lateran Council (1179) condemned the Albigenses and Waldenses, and passed a number of reforming decrees. (12) The fourth Lateran Council (1215), the most important ecclesiastical gather ing of the Aliddle Ages, formulated a more de tailed confession of faith in opposition to the Albigenses and other innovators, and passed sev enty reforming decrees. (13) The first Council of Lyons (1245) threatened the Emperor Fred erick II. with excommunication and deposition, and called on Christendom to take up arms against the Mohammedans. (14) The second Council of Lyons (1274) strove for the reunion of the Greek and Latin churches, and regulated Papal elections. (15) The Council of Vienne (1311-12) suppressed the Knights Templarb and mule-timed various sects of the time. such as the Fraticelli and Beghards. (16) The Council of Constance (1414-18) was called to restore the unity of the Church by the recognition of a legitimate pope, and con demned the doctrine of Wiclif and Huss. (17) The Council of Basel, convoked in 1431, and later removed to Ferrara and Florence. discussed ecclesiastical reformation, and made a determined attempt, in consultation with Greek deputies who came to Florence, to bring about a union with the East. (1S) The fifth Lateran Council (1512-17) the Pragmatic Sanction and confirmed the bull Unam Su net el m besides occu pying itself with ecclesiastical discipline. (19) The Council of Trent (1545-63, with some inter ruptions), called to meet the presented by the Reformation, was very rich in conse quences both for the confirmation of doctrine and the establishment of discipline. (20) The Vatican Council (1570) decreed the infallibility of the Pope. For further details of impor tant councils, see NIC.EA ; BASEL; CONSTANCE; TRENT, etc.
Among Congregationalists and Baptists the term council is applied to an assembly of ministers and delegates from neighboring cluirches, called by a local church, as occasion arises, to act or assist in ordaining a ministe.r, or give advice on matters referred to it, beyond which its power does not extend. They have also a national coun cil, composed of delegates from all parts of the denomination, and meeting for conference con cerning its work. The Pan-Presbyterian Alliance, as the association of the reformed churches hold ing the, Presbyterian system is called, holds a council every four years for conference on mat ters of general interest to the allied churches. So the Evangelical Alliance, a loose, undenomina tional body, holds councils, and the :Metho dists throughout the world held one in 1901.
The great history of the councils of all kinds from the Apostolic age to the Council of Trout is by C. J. Hefelc, assisted in the latter part by A. Knoller and Cardinal Hergenriither (9 vols., Freiburg, 1855-90) ; there is an English transla tion by Clark and Oxenhain of the first two vol umes, and up to the eighteenth hook of the orig inal (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1871 et seq.). Consult also the great collection of canons and other acts of the councils, by G. D. Mansi (31 vols.. Flor ence and Venice, 1759-93). A study of the first seven ecumenical councils from a doctrinal standpoint is presented by W. P. du Bose (New York, 1397), and their Canons and Dogmatic Decrees, annotated with much additional mat ter, all in English, by H. R. Percival (New cork, 1900). See SYNOD.