DUTCH LITERATURE. The dawn of Dutch literature appears in the Dutch sagas of Charlemagne and Arthur in the thirteenth century, adapted from the French epics, and obviously intended for the nobility. Such are Klaas van Haa•lem's of Orange (1191-1217) ; Dederic van Assenede's Flo•is and Blaneheflcur (about 1250) : an anony mous Roland Song. a Gawein, and a Lancelot of the Lake. Beynard the Fox was also done into Dutch about 1250. (See, also, MAEn LANT.) The Dutch hymns of the thirteenth cen tury are perfunctory, but there are folk-songs and historical ballads of the fourteenth century of some merit. The general tendency in the first half of this century, here as in France, was toward commercial democracy. This appears in Alaerlant (q.v.) and in his chief disciple, the moral chronicler Boendale (1280-1365). in Weert (died 1362), and \lelis Stoke. With 1350 there is an aristocratic reaction, apparent before in the epics of Jan van 'Teich' and Hein van Aken 1e.1255-1330): hut this movement expires in the early fifteenth century with Dirk Potter's Course of Love.
Meantime prose romance was cultivated for the vulgar, the Old Testament was translated about 1300, a Life of Jesus, the Gospel story popularly rendered; and the drama, sacred and send profane, shows characteristic traces of the Dutch genius for low comedy. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries literature in the Netherlands was dominated by the literary guilds, as burgher in tone as were the Meistersingcrs (q.v.). These. by public festivals, popular dramas, and social in fluence, made literature at once democratic and conservative. A new spirit came from the renas cence of classical learning in which Direk Coorn hert (1522-90) and llouwaert (1533-90) led. and Cornelis van Ghistele (IL 1555-83) followed, but with less effect on letters than was exerted by the Reformation, through translations of the Psalms (150, 1566, 1567) and hymns (1562 and 15691, and most of all by the battle-song; of liberty and hitter political scorn of the Lieden Boeexken ( I5S8). The stylistic reform ers of this period were the Catholic Anna Bijns (1494-1567?) and the Protestant van \larnix (1538-981.
From the close of the sixteenth century Am sterdam becomes the literary centre. for here only is thought free. Humanism is fostered by Hendrik Spiegel (15M.1612) and Roemer Vis seller (1545-1620), and by the ,Latin scholars Grotius, Drusius, and Vossius. In the next gen eration the beautiful and accomplished daugh ters of Viss•her, Anna (1584-1651) and Tessel schade (1594-1649), poets both, were the friends, admirers, and critics of the poets of the Dutch Augustan age, Vondel (q.v.). llooft, Huygens (q.v.). In their salon the comedies of Bredero and his rival Coster, afterwards a diligent culti vator of the dramatic shudder, were first dis cussed, and here Starter (born 1594), an emi grant from England, introduced to the Nether lands the Elizabethan lyric (1612 11). Cats (q.v., 1577-1660) escaped at Middelburg the Visseliers' genial influence; nor is it to be found in the Amsterdamer Bekker (1634-93), the most philosophical of writers in Dutch.
The immediate pupils of the classical genera tion were the dramatists Vas (died 1667). Brandt (1626-35), van der Goes (1647-S4) , and Oudaeu (1628-92), the epic poet Anslo (1626 69), the didactic Dekker (1610-66), Vollenhove (1631-170S). the lyric Luiken (1649-1703), and Jonctijs ( 1600-52 ) . Fiction was cultivated by Hermskerk, who emulated Urfic in his Batarian Arcadia (1637). and was himself imitated by Zoeteboom ( Zaanlandsche Arcadia, 1658) and Bus (Dortsche Arcadia, 1662), while Heinsius (q.v.) preferred to imitate Le Sage (iIirandor, 1675).
Drama by 1700 was completely Gallicized and insignificant. and lyric poetry rapidly declined. Prose is the normal vehicle of the eighteenth century thought. Here the first conspicuous fig ure is van Effen, with his Hollandsche Specta to• (1731-35), and the next ones the ladies Betjen Wolff (172S-1804) and Aagjen Deken (1741-1304), who in 1730 issued Lepers on Di verse Subjects, and followed this with three novels unrivaled in Dutch literature (Sara Burgerbart, 1782; Willem Lecvend, 1785: Corne lia Wildschut. 1792).
The first signs of the contagion of German romanticism appear in Nieuwland (1764.94), but more obviously and effectively in Bilderdijk (q.v.). though he affected to scorn it as he did Shakespeare. Faith (q.v.) showed himself an avowed disciple of Goethe. and Simons (1755 1812) of Klopstock. though Dutch realism was not without its protesting witnesses in Per poncher (1741-1819) and van Zon (Bruno Dall berg. 3758-1818). More national in his expres sion of romanticism is Loosjes (1761-1313)s novelist who continues the good tradition of Mesdames Wolff and Deken. Nationally roman tie, too. are the poets Tollens (q.v.. 1780-18561, Messchert ( 1790-13441, and Bogaers ( 1795 18701, whose Joelicbcd (1535), Voyage of Beemskerk to Gibraltar (1836). and Romances and Ballads (18461 are probably the most signifieant Dutch poetry of his generation. Nameworthy, too, arc (lie songs in lighter vein of Antoni Staring (1767-1810).
Since the middle of the century the achieve ments of Dutch scholars, especially in theology and history. deserve special recognition. The most striking novelists are T.onnep (q.v.. 1802 6g), Dekker (q.v.). and :\laartons (q.v.) ; the best essayist. Ilasebroek: noteworthy poets. Pot gieter ( 1 SOS 75). Pieter Genestet ( 1830-611. Da Costa (1798-13601, Ten Kate (horn 1819), Vosmaer ( 1326-88). Emants (horn 1818). and Beets. whose Camera 0bsrura is remarkable for its humorous portrayal of character. Among the critics Reinier van 41(.11 Brink (1610-65), Jan ten Brink, Jonckbloct, and duet are most note \V ort hy. J. ten Brink has written a serviceable It It //14. thschird, n is der A cd( rtandischcn Lcttcrt (1S7; i ; Dr. Jonckbloet, a (;( schitdcnis dcr A ed (rlandsche Lethrkundt (2d ed. 1S73); and van Vloten, a tickets ran de Geschiedcnis der Neder land.sehtn Let teren (1679) . Consult,: Alone, der nitderlandisehen Volkslittcratur alterer Zeit (Tiibingen. 1833) : schiehte der nicderlandisehen Litterat or (Leip zig. 1387),