Various reforms were introduced by the Eng lish, acting through Lord Dufferin, who was ap pointed Special Commissioner to Egypt. The French having I akVII mill part either in sup pressing rebellion or in the subsequent reorgani zation, the dual control came to an end in 1883, notwithstanding the protest of Eranee. An army of occupation was deemed necessary for a while to preserve tranquillity; but it was prom ised that its size should be steadily reduced. This promise, owing to a serious outbreak of the Arabs in the Sudan (q.v.). and the inherent weakness of the KThedival Government, was not redeemed. Egypt becante practically a depend ency of England, garrisoned by English troops, and with a Government whose policy is in all things directed by the representative of Eng land. though still carried out in the name of the Khedive. The Suez Canal, the new gateway to the East, and the strategic position of Egypt with reference to the development and control of Africa. gave that country a new- importance, especially for Great Britain. Egypt is still nominally a province of the Ottoman Empire; but the Government of Great Britain. where half of the Egyptian national debt is held, undertakes to represent the foreign creditors. The commander of the army, known as the Sirdar, is an officer. There is all In ternational Court, on which thirteen European countries and the United States are repre sented, which has jurisdiction in cases in which foreigners are eoncerned. The Khedive and the Government may be held responsible la-fore this court. The finances are guarded by the International Debt Commission, on which all the great Powers of Europe are represented. ruder British control the expenditures have been brought within the receipts, taxes 'MVP been reduced. and compulsory labor and slavery have been abolished. The Sudan. subject to Egypt in some measure since 1820, with its fanatical tribes of fearless though barbaric warriors. was a problem for the administrators of Egypt to deal with; its control was of great strategic im portance. and it was a centre of the slave trade. In 1871 Charles George (;orlon (q.v.) was ap pointed Governor•General of the Sudan, and suc ceeded in partially organizing the country and supple-sing the slave trade. Ile was succeeded in 1881 by Panuf Pasha, under whom the coun try relapsed into barbarism. The advent of the Alalidi Nlolminmed Alimet, in 1583, brought religions fanaticism into the struggle against Egyptian control. The rapid increase of the 3Iandi's power and the defeat of the .1nglo Egyptian army under Hicks Pasha led the Government to send General Gordon back to the Sudan in 1884. Ile was soon cut off in Khar tum, and the relief expedition under Wolseley arrived to late (January 28, 1885) to save him. The Sudan was lett to itself until 1894, when Sir Ilerhert Kitchener, in a series of campaigns Which proved the quality of the new Egyptian army, suceeeded in the authority of the governments over the Egyptian Sudan, his final triumph being the battle of Omdurman (September 2. 1898). Tewlik's son, Abbas Mimi, who had been educated in Europe, sue (-•eded as Khedive, January 7. 1592. and proved an able and enlightened ruler. Lord Cromer, the
British Consul-General, has had much influ ence in shaping the course of affairs in Egypt and the Egyptian policy of his own Government since the establishment of British influence in that country.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Art and Architecture: In adBibliography. Art and Architecture: In ad- dition to the works already cited in the article, the following may be consulted: Perrot-Cliipiez, History of Art (Paris, 1883) ; Maspero, Egyp tian. Are'urology, trans. by Edwards (London, 1889) ; Petrie, Egyptian. Dicorutire Art (Lon don, 1895). See Onm.isK; PvnAmu); SPHINX. llonuuW'nts and Arelurology: llosellini. Jlonu menti Egitto e della Wolin (Pisa. 1832 -14) ; Chatopollion, .1lonnoirats (Paris, 1835-451; Lepsius. Dent:muter (Berlin, 1849-59). The French pioneer work. Maillet, Description de rEaPPle (Paris. 1735), is antiquated. Aneient Petrie. History of Egypt ( London. 1894 et seq.): Alaspero. History of the Ancient orient (London. 1895-99). Median-al Ilistory; Weil, aesehichtc des Ahassidenrhalifats (Stutt gart, l86:21 ; Quatremire, Ilistoire des Sultans ilamelouks (Paris, 1837-41). Of scientific jou• nals, the Zeitschrif t fiir iigyptische Spraehe (Per lin), MT/Mil fie Traramr ( Paris ) , and Sphinx 1:psala) are the most important. On the mod ern inhabitants, the classical work of Lane, Man ners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, new ed. (London, 1882). is still unsurpassed. Con sult also in general: Ebe•s, :Icy/Lulea in Bild Wont (Stuttgart, 1879-80) ; trans. by Clara 1:c11 under the title Egypt, Itcseriptire, Histor ical. and. Picturesque (London, 1S51-S2): Lane, Alan/lees and Customs of the llodern Egyptians, new ed. ( London. 1882) ; Poole. ••Egypt," in Foreign Countries and British Colonies (London, id., Social Life in Egypt (ih., 1884); L'Egypte ( Paris. 1883) : Wallace, Egypt and the Egyptian Question (London, ; lalort ie. VMire Rulers and foreign ( ib.. 1883): Virchow.• Lund nod Lento im ahem nod near?? A qypten (Perlin, 1888)1 Kayser, einst und jetzt (Frei burg, 18891 ; Plauchut, I/Egypte rt Pocenpation anglaim. (Paris, 1889) : Rae. Egypt To-day (Lon don, 1892) ; Neumann, Das moderns Argypten ( Leipzig, 1893 ) ; Borelli, •hoses politiques d'Egypte IS83-95 (Paris, 1895) : Fircks.
1S(0 (Berlin. 1895-9I1) ; Wood. Egypt Under the British (London, 189111: Bourgnet, La Prance et en Egyple (Paris, 1897)1 St eevens, Egypt in 1898 I Ed inhurgh, 1898 : Cameron, Egypt in the Yineternth Century (Lon don, 1898); Penfield, Pregent-day Egypt (ib,, 1899) : White. The Expansion of I.7gypt (ib., 1899) ; England in Egypt ( ib., 1899); Boinet Bey. Diet ionnaire ye °gra ph ique de l'Egypte (Cairo, 1S99) ; Egypte 1900 ; Hoyle, The Egyptian Campaigns 1,sS2-85, 111.W (.11.
CO110/111(41 to 1 Si_19 L01111011, 19001 ; Brehier, L'Eyyptc de 17S9 d 190a ( l'a ris, I 901 ) : and Prince Ibrahim thinly. The Literature of Egypt and the Sudan, from the Earliest Times to the Inclusive: a Bibliography (London, The numerous reports of British sub jects in ofiieial position in Egypt and the Sudan are valuable sources of information. Most of them are published by the I iritish Government in London.