The Renaissance emphasis upon the linguistic charaocr of education introduced new secular in terests into the then prevalent system. In early years instruction hail to be of a religious charac ter. and hence centred in the religious literature, which demanded a knowledge of the Latin lan guage. Higher instruction was to a large extent. preparation for controversial life in connection with religious doctrines and literature. and hence had also to be linguistic in its elements. The Re naissance interest in the rudimentary sciences and ill the a--th•tie element in literature was almost wholly eliminated front organized edneational ef forts: While in addition to this. the religious con flicts introduced by the Reformation movement. so agitated and demoralized the social, domestic, and political conditions of the times, that organized education. subjected like all other to the distressful storms of the period. suffered great ly in the general upheaval. Nevertheless, during this agitated sixteenth century. there were educa tional influences at work, which crystallized into definite school organization and procedures, best typified by the work of Johannes Sturm (q.v.), and later by that of the Jesuits. Sturm, who was the head of the Strassburg Gymnasium from 1537 to 15S:2, organized a ten years' course of study. consisting of Greek and Latin grammar, rhetoric, and literature. Not till late in his forty-five years' experience (lid he introduce any study of mathematics into the hist years of his curriculum. Stu•m's ideas concerning organization and sub ject matter were most influential in shaping the developing school system of the German States. His course of study. slightly amplified, was adopt ed in the higher schools soon to become common under the term gymnasia (q.v.). His methods, embodied in text-books, were perpetuated and popularized in a similar manner, not only in Ger man States, hut elsewhere. Through Robert Ascii am, the tutor of ( ;wen Elizabeth and the friend of Sturm. similar educational ideas and practices were adopted as a characteristic feature of the public or grammar schools then being founded to sonic extent in England. In the latter part of the sixteenth century the ;Jesuit Order formulated its natio Studiorum (q.v.), embodying many ideas similar to those of Sturm. Their numerous school- were the most efficient and popular up to the middle of the eighteenth century, by the end of which there were 612 colleges. 157 normal schools, and f.'t universities. Sturm and the Jesuits only organized the humanistic education al idea, of the IZenaissance; and the resulting ed ucation in its content a wholly literary of the extremely classical type, while its purpose and discipline were largely determined by reli gions influences Sturm was a Ciceronian, and it was wholly Milli the purpose of producing the aldlity to use the Ciecrollian Latin and of securing the discipline entailed by this the dominant educators of the sixteenth and seven teenth centuries labored. this period there were apt those who protested against this formal education, and insisted that the purpose of the study of the classical literature WI'S the possession of the knowledge contained therein, and not to be found in any of the vernacular literatures. Erasmus. though a humanist, took this position; but the two Ereneh Men Rabelais (q.v.) and Montaigne (q.v.) were the chief of these, though about the middle of the seventeenth century John Milton issued his Tray. tote on Education, which demanded that the whole range of the sciences and art, should be studied in the Greek and Latin literature and propounded this notable definition of education, namely. "1 call a eomplete and generous education that which tits a man to perfnrin justly. skillful l•. and magnanimously all the ofliees, both public and private, of pea•(• and war." By Milton's time, however, there was abroad a new spirit in education. in which he participated to some ex tent. This was the same spirit that was repre sented in philosophy by Desea•tes and in scienee by Bacon; in education the great exemplar was ('omen ins (q.v.). The educational influence of Collicniu, was (1) in broadening the conception of education beyond the narrow literary and lin guistic confines until it included the whole realm of knowledge, as conceived in the popular pan sophie philosophy of the time: (2) in organizing edtication into a definite institutional hierarehy, and systematizing its subject matter into a definite course of study whieli included the ele ments of all the both natural and social: (3) in introducing improved inethilds of instrue. tion based on eoneeptions, more or less erroneous. it is true. of natural processes. These ideas were embodied in a series of text-books, the most int. portant of which was the e•bis Pirtus Comenius was not alone, even in the educational field, in standing for these new ideas. Ratichius (q.v.). or Ratke. had preceded him, but had ex erted little influence. owing rather to his tempera mental defects than to the novelty of his ideas. Even in the preceding century IZalielais and Mon taigne had led in the•ritieisin of the prevailing ed ucational ideas and practices, and While they had little influence on school work or little knowledge of the technique of the educational process, both opposed the extreme classicism of the time, pro tested against the acceptance of erudition as the aim of education, of the formal linguistic dis cipline as the purpose of the study of the classical literature. and held even more broadly that experienee in life gave the purpose to so far as it was a definitely organized process. Rabelais and .lontaigne were significant rather as protestant s, giving an embryonic formulation to a conception of education to be further devel oped and made practical by such men as Co menius. The practical aspect of the Comenian movement was limited to the seventeenth eentury, though the line of thought was continued. in 11193 ,Jolt' Locke published his Tit (igh tg entl co rain!, I which eoutinned the general thought of Comenins. though without recognizing the importance of a scientific rather than lin guistic curriculum as might have been expected. This work of Locke has probably been of wider influence than any other treatise on I'd11(•;10)11 written in the English language. unless it be Herbert Spencer's Education. Locke emphasized mural and physical aspects of education. in these respects exerting it profound and lasting impression on English education. both under the tutorial system which be approved and in the publie.sehools. Ile had in mind the education of an English country gentleman of his time, and gave little attention to the philosophical aspect of his education. This is treated in the more general work on The Munn n I and its U11111,91" passed through the writings of the empirical school of philosophy until it reached Rousseau. Jean Jacques Rousseau (q.v.) is the most commanding educational figure in the eigh teenth century. In 1762 appeared his Emi/e. which destined to direct the current of educational thought for a century. llis dmninant thought was 'education according to nature.' a
shibboleth which had a variety of interpreta tions; it meant. primarily, that the influence of human society is evil. that education should seek to eliminate all social influence. that education should shield the mind from error and the heart from evil, and this largely by isolating the chill: it meant. further, that the 'nature' to be consid ered in education was the nature of the child, not nature in the Comenian and Baconian sense of the general processes and phenomena of the physical and biological worlds, and this is its most important educational meaning; but it also meant nature in this latter sense as well, the world of things, since it was only the education that came from things that was wholly good. This last interpretation of the naturalistic doctrine led to the complete rejection of literary and lin guistic education, and in time to the organization. for elementary education. of a curriculum more suited to the needs of the child, drawn from those phases of his environment with which it came into immediate contact. such as geography. na ture study, number work, and manual occupa tions. While Rousseau's ideas were most radical and were often stated in such paradoxical form that they provoke dissent and violent opposition, he more than all others is responsible for these fundamental conceptions of modern education: that all educational processes must start from the child's own interests and activities; that educa tion is a process having several distinct stages, and that the subject matter and methods of education should be appropriate to each stage: that the age of adolescence is the vital period in education; that. education is moral, physical. and social rather than a merely intellectual process; that knowledge of child nature in general and of the children dealt with in particular is the most important part of the equipment of a teacher; that manual labor or trades should lie taught for their educational as well as for their moral and practical value.
The exaggerated, somewhat visionary. and often erroneous ideas of Rousseau were syste matized and made practical during the latter part of the eighteenth century and first half of the nineteenth by groups of educators led by such men as Pestalozzi Derbart tri.v.), and Frabel (q.v.). There is a wide divergence in the inter ests and the character of the work of these various groups. but they agree in one funda mental principle, which eharacterizes and unifies all their efforts and all this period of educational advance. This principle is that the 'nature' which is to control education is the nature of the child. Pestalozzi states the aim of the entire group when be says that his whole purpose is to Pest a 1 ozz approach was empirical, and his efforts were wholly practical. D•rhares approach was both philosophical and scientific, thought it is in this latter aspect that his influence has been permanent, through the development of the scientific study of psycho logical phenomena of late, in its experimental and physiological aspects. Frocbel's approach was primarily philosophical through the connection of the theory of evolution with education, a- seen in his Education of Ilan and Education by De o /opulent. However. his great influence was on the practical side, and it is for the application of these new theories of to the first few years of the child's life by means of a new educa tional institution, the kindergarten i q.v.), that the name of Froelich will always stand. But whether this conception of education was stated in philosophical or even metaphy-ical ternis. as with Kant. Ilerbart, and other-. or in practical or. empirical terms and concrete method:, the underlying conception and the general influence were the same. The psychological tendency in education was based upon a more intimate knowl of child nature. and a study of child ac tivities; it was characterized by a broader sym pathy with childhood and child nature; it turned from the advanced phases of education, and centred it. upon the elementary stage: it tended to break down the bookish character of education, and substituted the objective side of the child's immediate environment (see OBJECT TEACHING) ; it furnished a great stimulus to the movement for universal education: it concen trated educational interests in the problems of method, both psychological and practical. The beliefs of many, especially of those under the iu fiuence of Pestalozzi, were extreme in this re spect. Pestalozzi's thought was that any mother, with the Met bode which lie had formulated, could, despite no special training or knowledge, educate her OWII children without the assistance of books or any of the usual paraphernalia of the school room. This is extreme reaction from that con ception of education, dominant :ince the Renais sance, in which education was the acquisition of knowledge, especially linguistic and literary. Pestalozzi defined education to be "the harmo nious development of all of the powers of the a definition which expresses the central thought of the entire psychological tendency— that education is the process of the development of the individual.
During the second and third quarter: of the nineteenth century the reaction against the ex treme individualism of the earlier period af fected educational thought as well. In contradis tinction to the psychological. this may he termed the sociological conception of education, and em phasizes the thought that education is not only the development of the individual. but that it is the fitting of the individual to his social environment, actual and idealized. and hence that it is the development of society as well as of the individual. Auguste tout in hi, Positier Polity (1851-541 and Herbert Spencer in his Education (18611 may he taken as the leaders in this movement. though Pestalozzi in Leonard published 1 7S'I to 1790, a Iso emphasized this aspect of education. This socio• logical interest has centred in two points; (1) in a broader edneational purpose than that ex pressed in psychological terms, and in this it has hut put into educational terms the developing ethical, political, and social thought of the nine teenth century; (2) in a revision of the school currhulum. through the introduction of new sub jects. chiefly of a scientific character, and in a modification of emphasis and Organization. In its earlier stages the movement was largely a result of the expansion of the organized branches of human knowledge. and the demand made by the new professional and industrial opportunities for a wider knowledge and a training different from that afforded by the old literary education. The change in the curriculum of the colleges, as well as of elementary schools, the rapid devel opment of institutions of the type of American high or secondary schools, of technical, manual training. and professional schools, the introduc tion of the system of elective courses (q.v.) into colleges, the important position given to the various natural and social sciences, the attention devoted to the organization of all the school cur ricula and school systems. are all aspects of the sociological tendency.