1•nr•iNc. The hieroglyphic system of writing was believed by the Egyptians to have been in vented by the god Thoth. who instructed the in habitants of the Nile Valley in its use. It is found fully developed on the most aneient monu ments, and eontinued to be used for inseriptions down to the lloman period. The latest hieroglyphie inscription dates from the year .c.o. 2i0. (See Esxr..) The individual characters or hieroglyphs are pictures of men, animals, plants, weapons, implements, and other objects. Their number is very large, though only about live hundred are in frequent use. As re gards their employment, they naturally resolve into three classes: t 1) Phonetic signs, which are either alphabetic or syllabic; that is, they stand either for a single consonant or for a syllable. (2) Ideograms, which properly represent each a particular word, but are frequently used, in a purely phonetic manner, to represent any word having the same group of consonants. (3) De terminatives. or signs placed after words to indicate their meaning in a general way. For example, verbs of motion were determined by a pair of legs; names of animals, by the picture of a hide with the tail attached. The detenuina tires were not pronounced. hut merely served as an indication to the reader. The prevailing orthography required that each word should he written by means of its ideogram (if it had one), and to this was added an indication of the pro nunciation in phonetic characters. Sometimes the whole word was thus spelled out. As in all ancient systems of writing, except the Assyro Babylonian cuneiform, only the consonants were written, the vowels being left for the reader to supply. (See IliEttoGLientus.) While the hiero glyphics were well adapted for monumental in scriptions cut in stone, and lent themselves ad mirably to decorative , effects, they were very unwieldy where rapidity was essential. At a very early period. therefore, another kind of script, called the hieratic, came into use for writing on papyrus. The same characters were used, but in a more cursive form : only the essen tial features of the hieroglyphics were retained and these were merely indicated by a few strokes. Hieratic, therefore, differs from hieroglyphic writ ing in much the same way that our written let ters differ from print. There was a constant tendency to give the hieratic a more cursive form when applied to business and other prac tical purposes, and this tendency resulted, about n.c. 700, in the development of a new script, called the demotic or 'popular' writing. Demotic was simply a very cursive script, and was developed from hieratic just as this was devel oped from hieroglyphic writing. It was in gen eral use for papyri of a secular character as late as the Roman period. The most recent demotic text dates from the fifth century A.D. Through out all these changes, the system of writing re mained the same; it was merely the forms of the characters that were altered. In the second cen tury A.D. the Egyptians seem to have realized the nature of the demotic cursive script, and attempted to write their language in the very simple Creek characters. These at tempts resulted in the development of the Coptic alphabet of thirty-one letters. of which twenty four were borrowed from the Creek alphabet, while the remaining seven, representing sounds for which the Creek alphabet had no equivalent, were derived from demotic. In addition to its simplicity, this alphabet has the great advantage of expressing the vowels as well as the conso nants. As the vowels arc never indicated in the older system, Coptic becomes practically the only guide to the vocalization of all the earlier stages of the language.
Imr.n.vruttF. AND SCIENCE. That the literature of the ancient Egyptians was very rich is evident from the remains of it that we now possess. The earliest examples of religious literature are pre. served in the texts engraved in the pyramids of Dynasties Five and Six, and consist of magical formula designed to secure the welfare of the deeeased in the future life. They have been published and translated by Maspero in de travails (Paris, 1882 et seq.). .1 later col lection of texts of a similar character is to be found in the Book of the Dead. (Sec DEAD, Bout: OF The great mass of Egyptian religious literature consists of imitations of ...and extracts from these collections. There were, moreover, many religious myths, though but few have been preserved. Plutarch gives a very full account of the myths relating to Qsiris and his family in his HO K a2 and a few legends of the :sun-god Re are to be found on the Egyp tian monuments. These are fully treated by Wiedemann in his Religion of the Ancient Egyp tians (Eng. trans., Yew York. IStli). There were also a number of ritual texts giving minute direc tions in regard to the temple services. The rituals of the Theban divinities Ammon and Mut have been published in facsimile by the authorities of the Berlin Aluseum (Hieratische Papyrus anti dui konigliehen Mascot au Berlin, 1896- 1901 ) . Con trary to the expectations entertained before the decipherment of the hieroglyphics, Egyptian lit erature is totally lacking in works of a philo sophical or speculative character. Collections of moral maxims, resembling in many respects the Biblical Book of Proverbs, seem to have been pop ular. Among the best known are the Proverbs of Ptah-hotep (Prisse d'Avennes, Fae-simile (run papyrus egyptien, en caracteres hierat iques, rou a Thebes, Paris, 1847) and the Prescriptions of Ani (Mariette, Les papyrus egypt lens du muse(' de Boulaq, Paris, 1872-77). All such works are. however, entirely practical in their object, and present no abstract philosophical ideas. Egyp tian science was also entirely practical, and falls far short of the expectations raised by classical writers. The !hind Papyrus of the British Mu seum is the most extensive mathematical work of the ancient Egyptians that has been preserved. Dr. August Eisenlohr published a facsimile of this papyrus accompanied by a translation and commentary under the title. Fin ma hentatisches Handbuch der alien A cgyptcr (Leipzig, 1877), and a facsimile in colors was later issued by the trustees of the British Museum (London, 1898). It is a mere handbook containing the solution of a number of arithmetical and geometrical prob lems of practical application. Dow, for example, to divide so many loaves of bread or so many jars of beer among a certain nnmher of persons so that each shall receive a certain proportion; how to calculate the number of bushels of corn that can be contained in a granary of given dimensions: how to calculate the area of a field given linear dimensions. etc. Addition and subtraction were easily handled, but multiplication or division by any untidier larger than two involved a very long tedious process. Of the astronomy of the Egyptians little is known at present, though it is evident that they paid much attention to the subject. They mapped out the eonstellations, distinguished between planets and fixed stars, and constructed charts exhibiting the posit ions of the stars during the twelve hours of the night. The Egyptian year contained 365 days divided into 12 months of 30 days each, with 3 inter calary days added at the end of the year. From the earliest times great attention was paid to medicine. and the Egyptian physicians enjoyed a high reputation alining the nations of antiquity. One extensive medical work, the Papyrus Ebers I see •mns, .:\1.). written about B.C. 1550• has been preserved, and fragments of similar works have licen found. Among the latter are portions of treatises on gynaecology and veterinary medi cine. (('onsult Griffith, Thr Petrie Papyri. Lon don. 189S.) Although embalming was practiced Iron very early times, the Egyptians never ac quired notch knowledge of anatomy. Their medi c-al works are little more than collections of pre scriptions, and it is evident that their practice was altogether empirieal. The remedies pre scribed are often most repulsive. and the repeti tion of magical fornmhe was believed to increase the efficacy of the medicaments employed. The belief in magic was universal in all periods of Egyptian history, and the literature on the sub ject is most extensive. It has been seen that the magical formula. of the Book of the Dead and of older collections of similar import formed the hulk of Egyptian religious literature, and, in ad dition to these collections, numberless charms and incantations were devised for every conceiv able purpose. A most interesting collection of these incantatory formula• is to he found in the well-known Harris ilagical Papyrus (Chabas, Le papyrus magique Harris, Chfilon-sur-Satme, 1860). No collection of laws has been found, though there are many documents illustrating the civil and criminal laws of the ancient Egyp tians. Among the most, interesting and valuable of these are the Turin Papyrus (translated by Renouf in Records of the Past, 1st series. viii.. London, 1S79), containing a report of the proceed ings in regard to a conspiracy against Rameses Ill.. and the Abbott Papyrus (translated by Horrack. Records of the Past, 1st series. xii.).
which contains a report of the investigation of the tomb robberies in the reign of Rameses IX. (about n.c. 1100). Full accounts of these cele brated en cs are given in Erman, Life in _I ncient Egypt (New York. 1S94). The poetry of the Twelfth Dynasty formed the model for all subse quent periods; it somewhat resembles Hebrew poetry, employing the same parallelistic form. but is mm-h inferior to it. The only epic poem that has survived celebrates the victory of Rameses 'H. over the Hittites at Kadesh on the Orontes. It contains some spirited passages. but the action dra7s interminably. and the long and turgid declamations. in winch the King boasts of his superhuman prowess. are wearisome to a mod ern reader. The authorship of the poem has been erroneously attributed to a certain Pentaur; he was, however, merely the copyist of the manu script (Papyrus SaHic•, which is published in the Selert Papyri of the British Museum, part i. ( London, 1S421. .\ translation of the poem by Lushingt on is given in Rerords of the Past, 1st series. vol. ii. (London, 1S75). in lyric poetry the Egyptians were more successful. There are many line hymns. and the few love-songs that, have survived are graeeful and pleasing. though they exhibit no great depth of feeling. Good ex amples of the former are to be found in Wiede mann. Religion of the Aurient Egyptians (New York, 1897) ; the love-songs are collected in Maspero. EtnihR cyypt it nth s (Leipzig. 1879), and are more fully treated in \V. Max -Muller's Die L;cluspu(si«ler n .1( yypter In their entertaining literature. the Egyptians excelled all other Uriental nations of antiquity. the earliest they delighted in tales and stories. and the professional story-teller as familiar a figure in ancient :Memphis and Thebes as he is to-day in the bazaars of Cairo. Many of these old Egyptian tales have been pre served. and are accessible to modern readers in excellent translations. It is, of course, natural that such stories should attach themselves to fa tuous historical personages of former days, and this is the case with the Papyrus Westear (Er man. Die Jliirchen des Papyrus Westcar. 1590), a collection of stories dating from the time of the Middle Empire. In this collection King Cheops is represented as suffering from in somnia, and calling upon his sons to entertain him with stories. We here recognize the earliest example of the familiar literary device, often employed in later times. whereby a number of persons are brought together by some special oc casion which furnishes a motive for story-telling. The princes obey their father's command. and narrate, in turn. tales of the wonders wrought by famous magicians. One of these magicians con structs a small crocodile of wax, which, when thrown into the water,. attains a formidable size, and seizes the lover of the magician's faith less wife. Another. by his incantations. lays hare the bed of a lake, and recovers a jewel lost by a lady of the Court. after which he returns the water to its former place. When the turn of Prince Ilardadaf comes, he tells of a wonderful magician then living. and is commanded to bring him to Court. The magician. after giving some marvelous proofs of his skill, predicts that the wife of a certain priest will shortly bear to the sun-god RC three children. who will establish a new dynasty in Egypt. The narrative then passes to the birth of the children and the mar vels by which it was attended. Unfortunately. the manuscript is incomplete, and the end of the story is lost. The tale of the Fated Prince. (Papyrus Harris No. 50(1) is based upon a. motive familiar in the folk-lore of many poi Ides. A prince is born, and at his birth it is predicted that he will die by a crocodile. a serpent. or a dog. To prevent the accomplish ment of the prediction. his father causes hint to he brought up in an inaccessible castle. where he is carefully watched and tended. Attaining man hood, the prince refuses to remain thus impris oned, and sets forth into the world to seek his fortune. lie weds a princess whose watchfulness saves 'him from the serpent. and his faithful dog seems to be the means of his deliverance in his adventure with the crocodile. But here the manuscript breaks off, and we are left in doubt as to whether he suceumbs to the third fate or is delivered front this also, perhaps by the inter position of some deity. The well-known Tale of !hr Two Brothers ((1•biney Papyrus) is fortu nately preserved In this tale two brothers live affectionately together until the wife of the either falls in love with the younger and tempts hint. Tie rejects leer offer of love, and in revenge she falsely accuses him lo her husband, who seeks to kill him. The younger brother flees from his home, and takes up his abode in a solitary place. The gods, pitying his loneliness, fashion a woman of surpassing beauty to be his wife, but she. too, proves faithless. A lock of her beautiful hair is borne by the -ea to the King of Egypt. who sends his messengers, and she readily allows herself to be carried off. Iler hnsband is slain, but is miraculously restored to life, and, after a series of wonderful adventures, becomes King of Egypt, and punishes his faith wife with death. In addition to the wonders of magic. travels and adventure in strange lands f) rmed a favorite theme of the Egyptian story tellers. The story of the shipwrecked mariner, a sort of Egyptian Sindbad, who is cast upon a fabulous island peopled with serpents. and the legend of the taking of doppa by the General Tahuti, who contrives to introduce his men into the town concealed in sacks of grain, are good examples of this kind of narrative. In all these stories the style is simple and unaffected, and the interest lies entirely in the development of the plot. Of an entirely different type is The Story of Sinuhe (Lepsiu.i. Denkmaler, yids vi., Leipzig. an Egyptian of high rank. who flees his country on account of some political complication, and takes refuge with the Syrian Bedouins. He is kindly received. vanquishes a redoubtable champion in single combat, and is advanced to high honor. But after a prosperous life among the Bedouins. he yearns in his old age for his native land, and applies to the Pharaoh for per mission to return to Egypt. His request is granted, and, on his return. he is restored to all his former wealth and honors, In this story the plot is extremely simple, while the style is ornate and florid, and the narrative is loaded with rhe torical embellishments. Of a. similar character is the story of the Eloquent Peasant (Lepsius, nenkmlilrr, vol. vi.. Leipzig, IS IS). The peasant is robbed of his ass, and applies to the chief official of his district for redress. His eloquence excites the admiration of the official, who re ports the matter to the King. and by his com mand the ease is carried on from term to term. the peasant's speeches being carefully written down and reported to His Majesty. Here the very slender thread of narrative merely serves to carry the semi-poetical speeches of the peasant, which. for the ancient reader, constituted the real charm of the book. It would seem that these very elaborate compositions were intended for a more cultured circle of readers, while the tales of magic and wonderful adventures reflect, in their simple style, the stories current among the people. The rhetorical narrative belongs. moreover. to a particular period. that of the 3liddle Empire. Although still cultivated to some extent by the learned. especially for eduen tional purposes, it seems to have gone out of fashion under the New Empire, and thereafter Egyptian taste riffeeted the simpler tales of magic and adventure. One of the latest romances that have been preserved is the tale of ReIna Kha-ern-Wa'st tier deinotisehe Roman eon Leipzig. IS'Stil found in a demotic- papyrus of the Ptolemaic period. The taro. a son of King. liameses IL, devotes him self to the study of magic, and descends into an ancient tomb to obtain a wonderful book of enchantment written by the god Thoth himself, He secures the book, but its possession brings unhappiness, and he is at last compelled to re store it to its place and to make expiation for having removed it. The plot of this tale is well constructed, the action advances and the incidents are varied and wonderful. l'ott although it is in some respects a more Idaborate composition than the tales of the older period. the style is simply. and shows no trace of the strain ing after effect which characterizes the rhetorical narrative of the Jiilltile Empire. of such old Egyptian tales as have been pre served are given in Maspero, Lrs pop, Mires tle l'Egypte an•icanc (Paris, 1SS9). and in Petrie. Egyptian Talcs (London, 1893-99). The best translations from the various depart ments of Egyptian literature are to be found in The Worbl's Best Literature (ed. Warner, New York, IS97) ; the translations in the first series of Records of the Past (ed. Birch, London. IS74-79) are to be used with caution.