The Nile was the great highway of travel and traffic, with its numerous canals, gave easy access to all parts of the country. Timber was scarce, and the smallest boats were flat-bottomed skiffs constructed of bundles of papyrus reeds bound tightly together; they were propelled by poles or paddles, according to the depth of the water. Larger vessels were built of wood ob tained from Nubia. These were also Hat-bot tomed, and had the characteristic form of the modern Nile boat, in which the stern has con siderably more overhang than the bow, so that.
should the vessel run on a sandbar, the bow could be lifted otr by throwing the weight astern. These boats varied considerably. according to the use for which they were intended. Freight-ves sels were broad and clumsy. resembling scows. War-vessels and boats intended for travel and recreation were often handsomely decorated. In addition to the oars, they were usually provided with a large square sail attached to a yard. It was not until the time of the New Empire that a second yard, at the foot of the sail. was added. Both yards had braces and sheets for trimming the sail. The sheets. halliards, and standing rig ging were all made fast inside of the gunwale. War-vessels sometimes had a crow's-nest at the top of the mast, for a lookout or for archers. Large steering oars supplied the place of the rud der. But though they were at home in river navigation, the Egyptians were always disin clined to maritime enterprises, and therefore the carrying trade of the ..\lediterranean remained in the hands of the Phcenicians. while the infre quent expeditions of Egyptian ships down the Bed Sea to the Somali coast (see PUNT) did not result in the establishment of extensive traffic in that direction. In the south a very important trade was carried on with Nubia, and trading posts were early established at Syene and Ele phantine (q.v.), where panther-skins. ebony, ivory, and ostrich-feathers were bartered for Egyptian commodities. To the north a consider able trade was carried on by caravans with Syria and other Asiatic countries. Commerce was con ducted by barter, and in the early period money of any sort seems to have been unknown. Under the New Empire metal rings were used as cur rency, a copper wire of given weight serving as unit. Although Egypt was chiefly an agricultural country, her manufaetures were important, and were early developed. Linen was extensively manufactured, and the finer grades of the ancient Egyptian linen cannot he surpassed in modern times. The papyrus-plant furnished
for several industries. Bundles o; papyrus reeds took the place of wood for the construction of small and from the twisted fibres sandals, ropes, mats, sails, fishing-nets, and other objects were made. The most important use of the plant was, however, in the manufacture of paper. For this purpose the stalks were cut into thin strips, and a layer of these strips was placed upon a flat surface. Over this a second layer was placed at right angles to the first layer. The leaf thus formed was pressed out into a thin sheet. to which the natural gum of the plant gave a homo geneous character. The sheets were then dried and were ready for use.
In the working of leather the Egyptians were very skillful. The coarser leather was used for • the soles of sandals and shoes: from the liner grades were made aprons, belts. coverings for chairs and sofas. harness, chariot trappings. bow eases, and many other objects. Fine colored leather was stamped with ornamental patterns.
Good clay is to be found in all parts of Egypt, and the potter's art was very early developed. The Egyptian earthenware was made upon the potter's wheel. and was usually of a very simple character. For ornamental purposes. however. the Egyptians knew how to prepare a glazed ware resembling faience, and of this they made statuettes. vases. beads, and other small objects.
Class was produced at a very early period, and glass-blowing is represented in pictures of the Ile and New empires. The Egyptian artisans were proficient in metal Nvorking, although metals had to be imported and were therefore scarce. Tools and weapons of the earliest period were made of copper. later of bronze. Iron, although known from \Try ancient times, was always sean•, and was therefore not extensively used. "zilver was in earlier times more valuable than gold; but under the New Empire it became more plentiful. and the relative values of the precious metals were reversed. An amalgam, correspond ing, to the electron of the Creeks, and containing two parts of gold to three of silver. was much used for jewelry and ornamental purposes. The great skill of the Egyptian goldsmiths and jewel ers is exhibited in many specimens of their art that have been found in the tombs. They were adepts in the use of enamels, which were beauti fully colored, and they made skillful imitations of precious stones in paste.