EASTERN AFFAIRS ( 1856-98). The integrity of the Turkish Empire, guaranteed by all the Powers in 1856, has since been seriously impaired. In 1859 Moldavia and Wallachia elected the same 'hospedar' or governor: in 1866 they were united under Prince Charles of Hohenzollern into a practically independent State. In 187], taking advantage of the disturbed state of Europe, sin, with the support of Germany, obtained from the Powers the abrogation of those provisions of the Treaty of Paris which limited its naval forces in the Black Sea. In 1875 insurrections broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and shortly after wards in Bulgaria. The latter revolt was crushed with such cruelty that European sentiment was outraged. and the Powers, after fruitless negotia tions, left Russia free to deal with Turkey. The fourth Russo-Turkish war of the century, 1877 78, ended with the Russians at the gates of Constantinople. (See RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. ) A preliminary peace (see TURKEY) went so far in the dismemberment of Turkey that the Powers insisted on its revision. I See BERLIN, CONGRESS OF.) The settlement effected at Berlin has since been modified. Of the three principali ties recognized as independent—Rumania, Servia. and Montenegro—the first two have become king doms. Bosnia and Herzegovina, of which the ad ministration was intrusted to Austria, have be come in fact Austrian provinces. although the
fiction of Turkish suzerainty is retained. Bul garia and East Rumelia were united, by the revo lution of 1835, into a single tributary princi pality. In order to preserve 'the balance of power' in the Balkan Peninsula, Servia attacked Bulgaria, but was badly beaten. In one direction only have the limits of Turkey been widened. In 1897 Greece interposed to Protect its fellow count rymen in Crete, and in the ensuing war with Turkey the Greek armies were so decisively de feated that the Powers felt constrained to grant to the victor a 'rectification' of his Thessaliaa frontier. They took from the Sultan, the administration of Crete, and in 1898 they selected Prince George of Greece as their 'high eommissioner'; so that Crete is now practicality an independent principality, under Creek rule. About 15.000 Turks emigrated from Crete to Constantinople or to Asia Minor. In Asia and in Africa Turkey and Islam have suffered other losses in the course of the nineteenth century; the most noteworthy events being the gradual advance of Russia into central Asia and into the northeastern corner of Asia Minor, and the estab lishment of French supremacy in Algiers and Tunis, and of English supremacy in Egypt.