EXPLORATION, MODERN. This revival is associ ated with the name of Prince Henry of Portugal, known as 'the Navigator.' Prince Henry devoted all his time and resources, from 1418 until his death in 1460, to fostering maritime exploration, with the results detailed in the article on AFRICA, under History. Of the Mediterranean nations, Italy especially furnished a remarkable succes sion of navigators, who, sailing under other flags, doubled the extent of the known world during the century following the death of Prince Henry. Columbus in 1492 proved the possibility of cross ing the Atlantic, and discovered the New World, which he took to be the Indies; John Cabot in 1497 landed on the coast of North America; Vespucci between 1497 and 1501 established the continental character of the southwestern At lantic shores; and Verrazano gave France her claim to the northern continent in 1524. Before the advent of these Italians Bartholomeu Diaz, in 1487 rounded the southern point of Africa. In 1497-98 Vasco da Gama made the sea voyage to the real Indies by way of the Cape of Good Hope. For the next hundred years discoveries followed close upon each other, until all the main features of sea and land upon the globe had been determined. Serra° reached the Moluccas or Spice Islands by way of India in 1512, and in 1520-21 Magellan found the way to them across the Pacific. Magellan perished in the Philip pines; but his ship, the Victoria, kept on her voyage westward to Spain, completing the first circumnavigation of the globe. Cartier in 1534 entered the Saint Lawrence, and with the explo ration of that river basin began the work which was continued by Champlain, Joliet, and the Jesuit fathers in the seventeenth century, and completed by La Salle, who reached the mouth of the Mississippi in 1682, thus establishing the gen eral character of the interior of North America. In 1542 Antonio de Mota reached Japan, and in the same year Gaetano discovered the Sandwich or Hawaiian Islands. In 1553 and 1556 Sir Hugh Willoughby, Richard Chancellor, and Stephen Burrough sailed around Northern Scandinavia to Archangel, sighting Nova Zembla. Chancellor and Jenkinson proceeded to Moscow, and thence the latter went on to Bokhara, bringing back to Europe much information about the interior of Russia. Frobisher began the long record of Eng lish explorations in the Northwest in 1576, and the next year Drake started on the second circum navigation of the globe. Australia was dis covered by Torres and the Dutch sailors of the Duyfken in 1606, although it is possible that it had been seen a few years before by the Portu guese. In 1642 Tasman completed the delinea tion of the main outlines of this continent, and established the character of the lands beyond it to the south and east. For a century and a half the tide of discovery slackened while the nations of Europe were busy with the task of occupying and exploiting the vast areas newly brought to their knowledge. Then came the work of Bering, who in 1728 established the boundary between Asia and America at the strait which had been reached in 1648 by Deshnev (and which received the name of Bering Strait), and that of Captain Cook, who between 1768 and 1779 completed the survey of the water world, proving that there was no large habitable land mass undis covered in the Southern Hemisphere. The work
of Cook was perfected by La P6rouse, who finished the delimitation of the oceans in 1788.
Meanwhile the scientific exploration of the in terior of the continents had begun. In 1740 Varenne de in Wra-nderye reached the Rocky Mountains of North America. and in 1771 Hearne penetrated to the Arctic shores of the same con tinent by way of the Coppermine River. In 1768 72 Bruce began the century-long task of opening up the interior of Africa by his journey to the headwaters of the Blue Nile. In 1789 Mackenzie discovered the great river to which his name is given. Lewis and Clark (1803-06) and Pike (1805-07) filled in many of the important features of the Western United States. From 1799 to 1804 Humboldt traveled in the West Indies, Mexico, and South America, and by the accurate and comprehensive reports of his obser vations set a new standard which has increased immensely the value and trustworthiness of most of the geographical work done since his time. Mungo Park had reached the Niger in 1796. Through his explorations and those of Clapper ton, Denham, and Lander, the problem of the source of the Niger was solved by 1830. In the course of their journeys, Clapperton and Den ham reached Lake Chad in 1823. In 1828 Rene CaiIlie visited Timbuktu, where Laing had been killed in 1826. Livingstone crossed South Africa, tracing the course of the Zambezi, between 1849 and 1856, and in 1859 he discovered Lake Nyassa. While Livingstone was traveling in the region of the Zambezi, the German traveler Barth was engaged in a remarkable series of explorations in Western Sudan. Burton and Speke found the way to Tanganyika and Victoria Nyanza in 1858, and within the next six years Grant, Speke, and Baker approximately solved the problem of the real sources of the Nile. Lake Albert Ny anza was reached by Baker in 1864. Stanley in 1876-77 traced the course of the Congo, the principal affluents of which were observed by Wissmann during his two journeys across Africa between 1881 and 1887. In 1887 Stanley set out on the Emin Pasha relief expedition, in the course of which he discovered the Mountains of the Moon of Ptolemy. Asia, largely because it has been in parts longest known, remained for a time least known to Europeans. Between 1785 and 1794 Billings surveyed Eastern Siberia. Somewhat earlier, in 1761-67, Niebuhr had ex plored parts of Arabia, a work which was-supple mented by Palgrave in 1862-63. In 1856-57 the brothers Schlagintweit crossed the Himalayas and Tibet. In 1868 Richthofen entered upon his career as a Chinese explorer, and about the same time Ney Elias traversed Central China. The arid wastes of Central Asia included within the Chinese Empire were visited four times between 1871 and 1888 by Priezhevalsky. Valikhanoff reached Yarkand in 1859, and in 1870 Fedtchen ko penetrated into the country north of Pamir. The course of the Yang-tee, Pekong, and Brahma putra rivers was traced by the Pundit Krishna between 1878 and 1882. Younghusband traveled from Peking to Kashmir in 1887. Among other recent explorers of Central Asia have been Sos novski, Potanin, Pyevtsov, and other distinguished Russian travelers, Bell, Carey, Rocklin], Bonva lot, Henry of Orleans, Littledale, and Sven Iledin, who spent the years from 1893 to 1900 in explor ing Chinese Turkestan, Tibet, and Mongolia.