The relations of colonies to the mother country are various in form. Certain colonies of the United Kingdom—Canada, Australia, New Zea land, Cape Colony, and Natal—are practically in dependent in local matters, the mother country being represented only by a Governor-General, who is nominally the administrative head, as the representative of the Crown. In India, the entire government is carried on by Englishmen, except in the native States, where British in fluence is exerted by a resident. Other colonies •of the United Kingdom are governed by the home country, as are most of the colonies of France and the Netherlands.
Boundaries between nations and States differ widely in character. Some follow defined paral lels, or meridians, others the mid-channel or hank of a stream, others the summit of a moun tain range, while many follow a series of arbi ary lines, and are, it may be, the result of many adjustments. The boundaries of the older countries of Europe are in most cases of this last class. In any case, if the boundary has been surveyed and marked, the marks become the boundary whether they conform to the treaty •or law or not.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For general reference, consult: Bibliography. For general reference, consult:
Daniel, Handbuch der Geographie (6th ed., Leip zig, 1894-95) ; Hann, Hochstetter, Pokorny, Allgemeine Erdkunde (5th ed., Leipzig, 1896 99) ; Roclus, Nouvelle geographie universally (19 vols., Paris, 1875-94) ; Huxley, Physiography (London, 1880) ; Keane, Evolution of Geography (London, 1899) ; Mill, International Geography (New York, 1900).—MATIIEMATICAL: Clarke, Geodesy (Oxford, 1880) ; Giinther, Handbuch der ma thematischen Geograpkie (Stuttgart, 1890). -PHYSICAL: Fisher, Physics of the Earth's Crust (London, 1889) ; Supan, Grundzilge der physis chen Erdkunde (Leipzig, 1896) ; Priem, La terre, les mers et les continents (Paris, 1892) ; Penck, Morphologic der Erdoberfiliche (Stuttgart,1894) ; Davis, Physical Geography (Boston, 1898) ; Geikie, Earth Sculpture (New York, 1898) ; Lapparent, Lecons de geographie physique (Paris, 1898) ; Shaler, Outlines of the Earth's History (New York, 1898).—POLITICAL Ratzel, Poli tische Geographie (Leipzig, 1897). Consult, also, the following periodicals: Petermann's Mittheil ungen (Gotha, current) ; Geographical Journal (London, current) ; National Geographic Maga zine (Washington, current).