The French Revolution disturbed all previous adjustments. Austria, under the Emperor Leo• pold II. (1790-92) and his successor the Em peror Francis II., and Prussia, under Frederick William II. (1786-97), were for a time united in resistance to the revolutionary propaganda, which threatened the thrones of Europe, but were defeated by the French armies. The advent of Napoleon played havoc with the Germanic system. He succeeded in partially isolating Aus tria and Prussia, by inducing many of the West ern German princes to form the Confederation of the Rhine, and ally themselves with France (1806). Francis II. in 1806 laid down the title of Holy Roman Emperor, having previously as sumed that of Emperor of Austria. This aban donment of a title that represented a system with which the whole history of Germany had been bound up was symbolic of the actual break ing up of the old order and the preparation for a new Germany. When Napoleon had been over thrown, it was found, in spite of the policy of conservative reaction, to be neither possible nor desirable to restore the old system. The more than three hundred semi-independent States which had existed in the eighteenth century had been consolidated by Napoleon into thirty-nine— a fact which was of much service in promoting German unity. Prussia, which had been dis membered by Napoleon and trodden under foot, emerged from the War of Liberation rejuvenated by the patriotism of its people and strengthened by thorough-going reforms, and was prepared again to dispute precedence with Austria in the Germanic body. It was manifeAtly impossible to restore the old Imperial arrangements, which had become worthless long before they were cast aside. The Congress of Vienna (see VIENNA, CONGRESS OF ) , therefore, in 1815 instituted a Germanic Confederation under the guaranty of the European powers. There was to be a Federal Diet, in which Austria was to have the presi dency.
All of the German States were now disturbed by agitations for constitutional government, which were fought inch by inch by many of the princes. The dominant spirit among the rulers was that of reaction, and the control of affairs was largely in the hands of the astute Austrian Chancellor, Prince Metternich (q.v.). Three par ties represented the contending ideas of govern ment held in Germany after the Restoration—the absolutists, among whom were found most of the reigning families, including those of Austria and Prussia; the party of historic rights, who had no faith in constitutions, hut stood on the tradi tional customs of the German people, such as the assemblies of estates; and the constitutional ists, liberal and more or less democratic, strong est in South Germany, where the French influ ence had been most felt. This liberalism was especially fostered among the students in the universities (see' BURSCHENSCIIAFT) , and was closely connected with the spirit of nationalism, which was rapidly gaining strength. The chief obstacle to national unity was now, as it had always been, the obstinacy with which the princes clung to their feudal status and to the inde pendence which had grown therefrom. The prob lem had been made simpler by the Napoleonic consolidations, but the princes who remained were made stronger by the same means. Only the leadership of some State that should be willing to represent the' aspirations of the peo ple, and strong enough to coerce resisting States, could accomplish what the nationalists sought. This role was reserved for Prussia. The revolu tionary agitation of 1830 was felt in Germany, and gave some impulse to the constitutional movement, strengthened by the establishment of the Zollvercin (q.v.) or Customs Union, due to the initiative of Prussia; but it was not until the more stirring year of 1848 that the forces of dis content and progress that had been at work in spite of Metternich's repressive policy really showed themselves in their strength. On March 13th Metternich was driven from power. (See AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.) A few days later a successful popular rising took place in Berlin, and at the same time Louis I. of Bavaria was compelled to abdicate. In April there was a republican in surrection in Baden, which, however, was speed ily suppressed. In response to the demand for
a National Parliament, such a body was assem bled at Frankfort (May 18, 1848-May 13, 1849). A provisional national government was organ ized under an Imperial administrator, the Arch duke John of Austria. The Parliament, however, was divided into factions, and a struggle between the Austrian and Prussian parties ensued. Aus tria sought to bring its whole Empire into the new organization, with a preponderating voice in affairs, which would have made the new Empire non-German. Prussia and the German national ists objected, and finally carried the day, choos ing the King of Prussia to be Emperor of the Germans (1849). Frederick William IV. was not equal to the great opportunity, and he re jected the proffered crown because it came from the people and not from his peers, the German princes. The desertion of the national cause by Prussia was followed by insurrections in the Palatinate, Saxony, and Baden, which were rig orously put down, mainly by the arms of Prus sia, and the opportunity for the erection of a German nation went by until it should be re created by the `blood and iron' policy of Bis marck (q.v.). The National Parliament having gone to pieces, Austria and Prussia united in 1850 to restore the old Diet. The two powers now proceeded to establish the old order in the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which had risen in revolt against Denmark. Prussia as sumed leadership in proposing plans for reorganizing the Germanic body, but could not harmonize its own ambitions with those of Aus tria. In 1858 Prince William became Regent of Prussia, and in 1861 succeeded his brother as William I. Imbued with the conservative spirit of the Hohenzollerns, but possessed of much sound sense, courage, and patriotism, he met the existing situation in a different spirit from that of his weak predecessor. Bismarck early became his chief minister, and remained at his side until his death. The latter saw the futility of all efforts at German organization that had been previously made, and determined that the only way to the attainment of the great object was for Prussia to force a direct issue with Austria, and fight it out as the champion of German na tionality. The opportunity was found in the troubled affairs of Schleswig-Holstein (q.v.). By the Convention of Gastein (August 14, 1865), Austria and Prussia arranged a joint occupation of the duchies, against the wishes of the smaller States represented in the Diet. In this common administration, although the sphere of each power was defined, there was ample opportunity for the outbreak of the old rivalry. Austria sought to force the hand of Prussia by referring the settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein ques tion to the Federal Diet. Prussia met this move by sending its forces into Holstein, which had been under Austrian occupation. The Diet now ordered the mobilization of the Federal forces (June 14, 1866). Prussia at once began hos tilities, having previously formed an alliance with Italy against Austria. (See SEVEN WEEKS' WAR.) Prussia's preparedness was shown by her prompt action in each detail. She ordered Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, and Saxony, which had adhered to Austria, to disarm, and at once in vaded their territories. The Saxon army retired through Bohemia, to effect a junction with the Austrians; the Hanoverians laid down their arms after a useless show of resistance; and the Prussians, having secured their base, declared war against Austria, and invaded Bohemia in three columns. The rapid movement, efficiency, and thorough equipment of the Prussian Army surprised Europe as much as did the inefficiency and lack of organization of the Austrians. In the vigorous campaign, whose brief duration has given its popular name to the war, Austria met a succession of defeats, culminating in the over whelming one of Sadowa, or K6niggrittz, July 3d. By the Peace of Prague (August 23, 1866) the dissolution of the old Confederation was consum mated. Austria ceased to be a member of the Germanic body, and Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfort were in corporated with Prussia, which negotiated sep arate treaties with Baden, Bavaria, the Grand Duchy of Hesse, Saxony, and Wurttemberg.