When Photius (q.v.), who allowed himself to be irregularly raised to the patriarchate while his predecessor was still alive, and to be un canonically consecrated after passing from lay man through all the clerical ranks to that of patriarch in six days, proved too subservient to Bardas, the uncle of the Emperor, Michael the Drunken, and the virtual ruler, he was deposed by Pope Nicholas I. in 863. The deposed Patriarch appealed to the differences between the churches, especially the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Ghost, and the practice of celibacy among the Latin clergy, and, finding supporters, actual schism ensued. Under the next Emperor, Basil, this schism was healed, and though later Photius once more became Patriarch, he was finally ban ished in 886, by the Emperor Leo the Philosopher. It was almost two centuries before there was another open rupture, though there always re mained some insecurity in the relations between Pope and Patriarch. In 1054 Michael Cerularius was finally excommunicated by Pope Leo 1X. for fomenting heresy. Since then the schism has continued, although many attempts have been made to repair it. In 1098 at a synod held at Bari, by invitation of Pope Urban II., the fa mous Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, stated the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Ghost In the hope of winning back the Greeks, but without effect. The presence of the Crusaders in the East might have been expected to renew sympathy between the churches. But the rapacity and cruelty manifested in the establishment of the Latin Empire at Constantinople widened the breach between East and West. The Greek Emperors, partly perhaps through political mo tives, in order to get help from the West against the advancing Moslems; endeavored to bring about Church union. Michael Paleologus (see PALEOLOGITS ) sent ambassadors to the Council of Lyons in 1274, who formally abjured the schism. The bishops refused to ratify the union thus brought about. John Paleologus a century and a half later brought about a reopening of negotiations for union. The Patriarch of Con stantinople and a number of Church dignitaries from the East attended the Council of Ferrara and Florence, held in 1438-39. All the doctrinal points of difference were discussed, and the Greek Churchmen present, with the single ex ception of Mark, Bishop of Ephesus, formally signed the decrees of the council, The action of the Greek bishops was repudiated by the majority of the Greek clergy. The downfall of the Greek Empire in 1453 obliterated all trace of the reconciliation. A number of at tempts have been made by Protestant com munions to establish an understanding with the Greek Church. Melanchthon addressed a letter to the Patriarch Joseph of Constantinople, through a deacon of the Church, who visited Ger many in 1558. Two well-known Tubingen divines, Andreae and Crusbls, visited Constantinople dur ing the patriarchate of Jeremias, 1576 to 1581. Both missions were unsuccessful. In the follow ing century the celebrated Cyril Lucaris (see LucAtus), who was educated in the West, and carried home with him a strong but well-concealed bias toward Protestantism, was elevated to the patriarchate, and issued a decidedly Calvinistic confession of faith (1629). This caused Lucaris's deposition, and called forth a doctrinal declara tion signed by the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, and Antioch, and many metropoli tans and bishops, which by the clearness and de cision of its definitions draws the line so marked ly between the Greeks and Reformers as to shut out all possibility of accommodation in matters of doctrine. This exposition, the author of which was Peter Mogilas, Metropolitan of Kiev, and which was published in 1640, was adopted in a synod held in Jerusalem (1672) as the creed of the Greek Church. In 1722 it was published by order of Peter the Great as the authorized formu lary of the Russian Church. It differs very little from the formularies of the Roman Catholic Church.
The doctrinal differences between the Greek and Roman churches consist chiefly in the rejec tion by the Greeks of the word Filioque (q.v.) in the creed, in which the Greeks disagree with all Trinitarians; in their rejection of the su premacy of the Pope, and of the word purgatory, though they believe in a state of purgation after death, and in the efficacy of prayers for the dead. They teach seven sacraments, though the ritual of their administration differs somewhat from the Roman. Baptism is by triple immersion.
Confirmation is given with baptism even to in and by priests, not bishops exclusively. The Greek Church teaches transubstantiation, just as the Latin, and the adoration of the Host, though this has been denied by Protestants. It uses leavened instead of unleavened bread for the sacrament, and gives communion in both kinds even to children. Extreme unction has certain special rites, and may be given several times during the same illness. There are ritual peculiarities also in the administration of Holy Orders. (See ORDERS, HOLY.) Marriage is al lowed to priests and deacons before ordination, and is in fact rather encouraged. Bishops are required to be celibate, and are consequently se lected from the monastic orders. Second mar riage, however, or marriage with a widow, is not permitted. Prayers to the Blessed Virgin and the saints, whose pictures are exposed for ven eration, are common. Graven images are not per mitted, except of the Cross, though crucifixes are not used. The sign of the cross is often em ployed. Instrumental music is not allowed in the churches, but vocal music, by male voices only, is developed to a wonderfully impressive degree. In general the splendor of ceremonial is not inferior to that of the Latin Church. The Holy Mysteries are celebrated in a sanctuary entirely separated by a partition from the rest of the church. During Lent, except on Saturdays and Sundays, there is only the mass of the pre sanctified, as in the Roman Church on Good Friday. (See HOLY WEEK.) The people pray standing, facing the east, and kneel only at Pentecost. The Greeks believe in the merit of good works and of self-denial. Monastic insti tutions have existed in the Greek Church from the earliest times, and there are numerous con vents of both sexes which follow almost exclu sively the rule of Saint Basil. This enjoins pov erty, chastity, and obedience. The monks are not priests as a rule, but they are bound to recite the Divine Office. They are not permitted by rule to eat meat.
Of the three important divisions of the Greek Church, that in the Turkish dominions is under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constanti nople, who is the acknowledged superior of the three other patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The patriarch is named by the patriarchal community, consisting of the digni taries, lay and cleric, of the patriarchal house hold, of the notables and the merchants of the city, and of the heads of corporations. Their choice is limited, however, to one of three can didates, who must be metropolitans, selected by the Holy Synod of bishops. The elect one does not become patriarch until invested by the Govern ment, which also has the power to depose. This has led to abuses and simoniacal practices. Dur ing the nineteenth century many of the patriarchs were deposed for extortion at the request of the Synod.
The Greek Church in Russia became practical ly independent by the appointment of a Patriarch of Moscow in 1588. The dignity was subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople until the reign of Czar Alexis, father of Peter the Great, when the Patriarch of Moscow, Nikon, refused to acknowledge the jurisdiction of Constanti nople. About the year 1700, on the death of the Muscovite Patriarch, Peter the Great would not permit the appointment of another, but allowed the authority to be exercised to a cer tain extent by a bishop under the name of .exarch. After the lapse of twenty years, during which time the people became accustomed to the idea of having no patriarch, a holy synod or gov erning committee was appointed, over which the Czar has since presided. The leading prin ciple, in fact, of the new constitution of the Russian Church is the absolute supremacy of the Czar. The Holy Synod is now regarded as one of the departments of the Government, the Min ister of Public Worship being ex-officio a mem ber. To this body, through a bishop, residing in San Francisco, and bearing the title of Bishop of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, the churches of this communion in the United States, which are partly supported by the Russian Government, are responsible. There are 58 of them, with some 40 priests, and 45,000 adherents. Their periodi cal organ is the Amerikansky Russky Viestnik (New York), to which is published in English a monthly Russian Orthodox American Supple ment.