The mode in which the pitman proceeds in excavating the coal is by cutting a narrow fis sure on the seam on each side of the bond with his pick-axe, and undermining the coal between, and then cutting into and forcing down the isolated portion of coal, or, where the seam is thick, by detaching the great cu bical mass thus prepared by blasting, two or three shots being sometimes simultaneously fired at the top of the seam. From 60 to 80 or 100 tons of coal may thus be brought down at once, when it is put into corves, drawn along a tram-road to the shaft, and thence raised by a steam-engine to the sur face, where it is often passed over gratings or screens' in order to separate the small pul verised coal from the larger masses.
In mines which are not endangered by ex plosive gases or fire-damp,' the coal-miner or 'pit-man' is guided in his operations by the usual subterranean light—a small candle stuck into a piece of moist clay; but where the fire-damp is apprehended the safety-lamp is used. [LAIns, SAFETY.] The frequency of colliery accidents has re cently drawn the attention of scientific men to the subject ; and the Institute of Civil Engi neers is at the present time engaged in the discussion of schemes for improved systems of ventilation.
Coal was long considered politic to check the exportation of coals to other countries, both through fear of exhausting the mines, and because it was imagined that our superiority as manufacturers might be endangered. A heavy export duty was accord ingly levied; but this was gradually lessened in 1831, 1835, and 1842, and abolished alto gether in 1845. There was formerly a revenue on coals carried coastwise, but this was abo lished in 1831.
A very peculiar regulation was established by the coal owners of the northern coal-field, called the 'limitation of the vend.' It was a systematic combination among the owners of collieries having their outlets by the Tyne, the Wear, and the Tees, to raise the price to consumers by a self-imposed restriction as to the quantity supplied. When the coal duty was abandoned in 1845 the coal-owners gave up the limitation of the vend.' A regulation which affects the coal trade from the Tyne and the Wear has been esta blished by act of parliament (1826), under the provisions of which every ship must be loaded in her turn; and, if any colliery refuse to sell, a penalty is imposed of 1001. ; but this regu lation may be and has been evaded by the coal-owners by an easily concocted pretext. Regulations have also been made as to the unloading of coal-vessels in the Thames : the number being guided by the price of coal in such a way as to keep up the monopoly.
In May 1811, the harbour-master of the port of London presented a return to the lord mayor, which shows the operation of the regulations established by the coal-owners in the port of London for keeping up the price of coal. On the first of May there were 260 vessels laden with coal, detained in sections waiting their 'turn' of sale. On one day in the same month, ten colliers had been de tained, with their captains and crews, for 46 days, and two had been detained above 50 days. On the 27th of May, 109 coal-laden
ships were detained in sections, and the price of the best coal had advanced to 21s. and 25s. per ton, or about 34s. per ton to the con sumer.
The railways now in progress will have an important and most beneficial effect in redu cing the price of coal in all districts lying far away from the collieries ; indeed such influ ence has already been felt, since the year just named. The York and Berwick Railway, and the York and North Midland Railway, carry an immense quantity of coal ; and the Great Northern Company have lately commenced to do the same.
In 1845, the collieries of Northumberland and Durham were 129 in number ; the steam engines employed were 19,201 horse-power; the actual production was 6,790,093 tons. In 1844 there were 16,515 persons employed at the Tyne collieries ; 13,173 at those of the Wear; and 4211 at those of the Tees ; making 33,899 in all. The largest number at any one colliery was 1403 at Lambton. The colliery proprietorships are ranged under four classes, according to the scale of the operations. The 1st class comprises four great concerns, headed respectively by the Marquis of Lon donderry, the Earl of Durham, Lord Ravens worth, and the Hetton Coal Company. The capital sunk in each of these concerns is sup. posed to be not less than half a million ster ling; they each comprise from six to twelve separate mines, and all the necessary engines, waggons, horses, 3,-e. and they are believed to realise a profit on an average from 35,0001. to 45,0001. per year each. The 2nd class com prises companies or partnerships whose sunk capital ranges from one to two hundred thou sand pounds. The 3rd class includes those concerns which have only a single pit each, and whose capitals are from forty to sixty thousand pounds. The 4th class, humbler but more numerous than any of the others, comprises those which have a capital ranging from eight to thirty thousand pounds. • In South Staffordshire, the 'Butty' system of employing miners is extensively acted on. This consists in the miners being the servants, not of the proprietor or lessee of a colliery, but of a contractor called a butty,' who en gages with the proprietor of the mine to deliver the coal at so much per ton ; hiring the labourers himself, using his own horses, and supplying all the tools necessary for working the mines. These butties have in general been working miners, who, by the ac cumulation of some little capital, or by the assistance of relations, are enabled to engage a pit, with or without partnership with other persons, and to enter into a bond to raise the coal at a given price per ton. But in the Northumberland and Durham district the re lation between the proprietors and the miners is more direct and intimate. No middlemen or contractors are employed; the overseers, viewers, and other intermediate officers are paid by regular salaries ; and the working col liers receive in cash from the proprietors, once a fortnight, the amount of their earnings.