The process of preparation in Borneo olosely resembles that current in Ceram. Borneo is the head-quarters of sago-culture, the territory of Sarawak alone furnishing more than half the sago produced in the whole world. The palm flourishes on the marshy banks of the rivers all along the Sarawak coast to about 20 miles inland. Very large quantities are brought down from the Limbang, and other rivers in the interior. It is sent down in the raw state, and is manufactured into flour at two Chinese factories near Brunei, and three in Labuan. The exports from Borneo in 1879 were 20,000 tons, value about 161,432/. This was almost entirely sago-flour, the quantity of raw sago being very small, and of pearl still less. As seen in commerce, sago is usually in the form of grains. These are prepared by different methods in different localities, but the principle is the same in all, viz. that of mixing the meal into a paste with water, and rubbing it through suitable sieves to granulate it. It is made in a spherical form in New Guinea, according to Forrest, by allowing the sago, as it drops from the sieves, to fall into a shallow iron pot held over a fire. Blume states that in Singapore it is made by the Chinese in a similar way, the grains being constantly turned during the process. A factitious sago is prepared in Europe from potato-starch ; the fraud is readily detected by the microscope.
Our imports of sago and sago-flour in 1880 were 377,025 cwt., 304,754/., from the Straits Settlements ; 4643 cwt., 3581/., from other countries; total, 381,668 cwt., 308,335/. Our re-exports in the same year were: 10,954 cwt., 9224/., to Denmark; 17,357 cwt., 14,391/., to Germany : 14,006 cwt., 13,006/., to other counties ; total, 42,317 cwt., 36,621/. Our direct imports from Borneo were 5735 cwt., 3993/., in 1876. The approximate London market valnes of sago are:— Pearl, small, 17-20s. a cwt. ; medium and large, 19s.-21s. 6d.; flour, 16s.-21s. 6d.
Tapioca.—Tapioca is derived from several species of Manihot [Jatropha, Janipha], chiefly the bitter or poisonous (M. utilissima), the sweet cassava, manioc or mandioc (M. Aipi), and M Janipha. They seem to be natives of Brazil, but are largely cultivated also in Guiana, Venezuela, W. Africa, and the W. Indies, as well as in S. India and Malaysia. The bitter kind is propagated by cuttings from the ligneous part of the stem, planted iu rich dry soil. It is more productive than the sweet species, which latter will grow in almost any soil, though best in such as is suited to the former. The tubers are ready for digging up in 6-12 months, according to the variety, The volatile poison contained in the juice of the bitter kind is first removed in a measure by pressing the grated root, the operation being completed by the subsequent heating passed through. There are two modes of preparing this starch. In the " wet" method, the grated root is placed in water for 4-6 days, then kneaded with water, and pressed to extract the juice. The fecula is sifted and baked in earthen ovens, some fresh manioc paste, which has fermented, being always added. In the " d.ry" process, the root is rasped by hand, water is added, and it is put to be pressed; after drying and sifting, it is baked. The fecula deposit is washed 3 times and sun-dried. The collected starch, heated on
iron plates, becomes partially cooked, and agglomerates in small, hard, irregular lumps, constituting tapioca. In British Guiana, the juice is expressed from the grated root by means of a cylindrical squeezer, called a matapi, made from the ita-palm (Mauritia flexuosa). By attaching one end of the filled bag to a beim, and suspending a weight from the other end, the contents of the bag are compressed by its elongation, and the juice runs out. Pearl tapioca is likewise factitiously prepared from potato-starch. The concentrated juice of the bitter cassava is the basis of the well known W. Indian sauce called "pepper-pot." The culture of the plant is inexpensive, and the product is highly remunerative, so that the growth of the plant is becoming very general throughout the tropics. Brazil exported about 7 million litres (of 1/ pints), value 26,050/., in 1871. Dominica exported 246 bush., 63/., in 1872 ; 2242 bush., 324/., in 1878. Brunei (Borneo) shipped 413 dol. worth to Singapore in 1879. The approximate London market values are :—Rio, 3-6d. a lb.; Penang and Singapore, 4,-.3fd.; flour, ; pearl, 18-30s. a cwt. Rio tapioca is whiter than that of Bahia.
'Wheat-starch (Fs., Amidon de Ble ; GEB., Weizenstarhe).—The ripe grain of the wheat-plant (Triticum vulgare) contains 50-75 per cent. of starch. There are three chief methods for preparing wheat-starch, based on different principles :—(1) By acetous fermentation, (2) without fermentation, ,(3) from flour.
The first plan, which is still in wide use where flour-mills are taxed, labours under the disadvantages that the gluten is destroyed for all practical purposes, and that noxious vapours and foul liquids are largely produced. The wheat is first soaked in " steeping-troughs," capacious tanks of wood, iron, masonry, or concrete, arranged so as to be readily supplied with clean water, and as readily drained of foul liquors, and maintained at a temperature of 12r-15° (54r-59° F.). The tank has a strainer-tap for +drawing off the foul liquid, and a manhole near the bottom for withdrawing the grain. The tank is half-filled with pure soft water ; some of the grain is intro duced, and thoroughly stirred up ; the hulls, empty grains, and rubbish are skimmed off. This is repeated with new quantities of grain, and water is let in till it rises 2-3 in. above the grain. This water is generally used at a temperature of 10°-12r (50°-54r F.), but the operation may be much hastened by employing it at 30°-38° (86°-100r F.). The duration of the steeping depends much upon the temperature, and upon the character of the water and grain respectively, but commonly amounts to four days in summer and 10-11 in winter. The foul water is drained off, and the snaked EMUS washed clean by running in fresh water, and allowing it to drain off for several hours. The grain is then withdrawn at the manhole for bruising. It is necessary to watch that the water does net become sour by the fermentation of extracted matters.