The area occupied by olive-yards in Italy in 1874 was 2,223,768 acres ; the production of fruit in the same year was 9,310,375 bush. The total Italian exports of olive-oil were 51,413,000 kilo. in 1878, and 88,655,000 in 1879. The shipments of olive-oil from the chief Neapolitan ports in 1878 were :-10,820 tuns from Gallipoli, 915 from Taranto, 5860 from Gioja, 1885 from Brindisi, 925 from Monopoli, total, 20,405 ; the destinations were : 5553 for United Kingdom, 5752 for Russia, 972 for France, 310 for Germany, 305 for Holland and Belgium, 203 for Austria, 6950 for Italy, 360 various ; total, 20,405. In 1879, the shipments were :-4298 from Gallipoli, 6138 from Taranto, 9727 from Gioja, 7654 from Brindisi, 3070 from Monopoli, 1744 from Rossano, total 32,631 ; the destinations : 10,313 to Great Britain, 10,573 to Russia, 7786 to Italian ports, 1619 to France, 2340 to other countries, total, 32,631. Naples, in 1879, exported 1,485,721 kilo., value 101,064/. Civita Vecchia, in 1877, exported 9187 kilo. of oil, value 497/. The island of Sardinia, in 1877, produced 53,326 heotol. (of 22 gal.), 47,446 being from Sassari province. The Balearic Islands exported 26,838 hectol. of olives, and 3,152,493 litres (of 11 pint) of oil, value I23,236/., according to the latest returns ; Ivica and Palma send most, Minorca none. The olive is cultivated along the littoral of S. Dalmatia, the best oil being produced in the district of Ragusa. The export of oil was 208,466 centners (of 110 lb.) in 1875, and much greater in 1876 and 1877. Trieste shipped 354 tons of oil to Great Britain in 1879. The total Greek export was 12,244,615 okes (of lb.) in 1875. The exports of olive-oil from Samos in 1879 were valued at 4700/. to England, 61801. to Austria and Germany, 89001. to Turkey and Egypt ; total , 19,780/. Patras, in 1878, was expected to prepare about 10,000 tuns of olive-oil for exportation. The provinces of Ualamata and Messenia produced 2000 tons of olive-oil, value 68,000/., in 1880. The Santa Maura harvest of 1878-9 was unusually abundant, amounting to 55,000 barrels, or about 3437 tons. The Zante crop of 1879 was estimated at 20,000 barrels as against 70,000 in 1878. The shipments of oil from Syra in 1879 were valued at 260/. to Austria. The value of the olive-oil shipped from Corfu to Great Britain was 9484/. in 1877, besides nearly 2001. worth of soap made from pyrene-oil. In 1878-9, the crop was 220,009 barrels (of 16 gal.), or 13,968 tuns, and the values of the exports were 34,000/. to England, 106,200/. to Austria, 123,000/. to Italy, 22,000/. to Russia, &c., the total exceeding 304,000/. ; there were besides 560 tons of soap made from common oil, and 150 tons from pyrene-oil, repre senting a total value of 19,800/. Cyprus produced 103,114 gal. of olive-oil a short time since, but this figure might be enormously increased. Crete depends chiefly upon its olive-yards ; the exports of oil in 1879 were :-2400 tuns, value 84,350/. from Candia ; 2050 tuns, 71,700/. from Canea ; and 400 tuns, 14,4001. from Rethymo. Its destination was almost exclusively the Barbary coast, only 330 tuns coming to the United Kingdom. The exports of olive-oil soap in 1879 were : 50,000 cwt., 66,540/., from Candia ; 11,700 cwt., 15,750/. from Canea ; and 21,000 cwt., 27,000/. from Rethymo. Thessaly exported 20,000/. worth of olive-oil in 1880. Olive•oil is produced throughout Syria, but chiefly on the plains of Safet, Nazareth, and Nablous. The plantations are being extended widely. The exports from Jaffa in 1879 were 2,000,000 ekes (of 2'83 lb.), value 74,0741., to Europe, chiefly France ; also 55,000/. worth of olive-oil soap. The Persian province of Ghilan exported 28841. worth of oil and soap to Russia in 1878, and 3077/. worth in 1879. The olive-groves of Roodbar annually produce an average of 100,000 cwt. of oil, of an inferior quality from careless treatment. The climato of Algeria is specially suited to the olive, and at least 3 million trees are now growing there under cultivation. In 1877, the production of fruit was 55,239,000 kilo., yielding 1,543,400 hectol. (of 22 gal.) of oil. In 1878, the figures increased, and there is yet room for development, especially in Kabylia. The exports of oil were 3,245,708 kilo. in 1877, 710,330 in 1878, and 3,003,703 in 1879. Olive-gardens constitute the main wealth of the Moroccan provinces of Haha and Sus, but during the last few years, the crops have constantly failed, and barely supplied local needs. The Tunisian districts of Susa, Monastir, Media, Sfax, and Biserta maintain 4-5 million olive-trees. The exports in 1873 were 3472 tuns, value 125,893/., chiefly to France. Olives have been grown successfully in several of the S. states of America, but not profitably. More satisfactory results have been obtained in California, where one grower has some 6000 trees in bearing, and recently sent 1000 gal. of the oil to San Francisco. The Department of Agriculture is fostering the industry by importing cuttings of the best European varieties. Olive-oil is extensively prepared in several states of Mexico, especially Guanajuato and the Federal District. Victoria had 20 acres under olives in
1878-9, besides many trees in gardens ; the industry has doubtless a great future before it in portions of every Australian colony, and in much of the N. island of New Zealand. At the Cape, at least one indigenous species of olive (Olea capensis) is found growing wild almost everywhere, and only needs grafting and cultivation to become a valuable resource to the colonial planter.
Characters and Uses.—Superior olive-oil is a somewhat viscid liquid, pale- or greenish-yellow, of faint, agreeable odour, and bland oleaginous flavour ; sp. gr. 0.916 at 17° (631° F.); commences to lose transparency by separation of a crystalline fatty substance at 0°-10° (32°-50° F.) ; when congealed and pressed, affords s of solid fat, melting at 20°-28° (68°-82i° F.), the fluid portion (oleine) remaining liquid at — 4°- — (25°-14° F.). It is one of less alterable, non-drying oils. The best kinds of oil are consumed enormously in food and medicine, constituting the "salad-oil ' of the shops ; the commoner kinds are employed in lubricating, illuminating, woollen-dressing, and the manufacture of soaps. It is most extensively adulterated with refined cotton-seed, ground nut, and other oils.
Ouabe and Bread-nut-oil.--The former name is applied in Guiana to an oil extracted from a species of Omphalea (see Nuts—Bread-nut, p. 1352), and said to he an admirable lubricator. In Jamaica, a fine limpid oil is also obtained from one species, but its congealing-point is not ascertained.
Owala or Opochala.—The seeds of Pentaclethra macrophylla, known as owala in the Gaboon, and opochala in Fernando Po, afford much oil. The kernels alone yield 56 per cent. by ether extraction, and the whole seeds 50 per cent. It has a clear yellow colour, but becomes brown OD purification. It loses its limpidity at 11° (52° F.), and becomes viscous at 0° (32° F.), hut does not dry in thin layers, even after several days' exposure. Its flavour and odour are not disagree able. It is adapted to soap-making and lubrication, and is edible. The seeds are imported into Rotterdam.
Palm-oil (FR., Huilc [Beurre] de Palme ; GER., Palm50.—The so-called "palm-oil" is a product of the fruit of several species of palm, but particularly of Ekeis guincensis (see Nuts—Palm, p. 1359).
For the production of commercial oil for exportation, the spadices are cut from the trees, and put in a heap in the outer air, where they are allowed to remain for 7-10 days ; this causes the joints of the nuts to be weakened by the process of decomposition, and they are then easily detached by simply beating them. The nuts or fruits are gathered together, and the husks that adhere to their base are removed, either by hand or by the rubbing them together, and are separated by throwing them in the air, and allowing a strong breeze to blow them away. A hole about 4 ft. deep is dug in the earth, and lined with plantain-leaves, into which the nuts with their hard un yielding pulp are put, and covered over, first with plantain-leaves, and then with palm-leaves and earth. The nuts are allowed to remain for various periods—from three weeks to three months— until more or less decomposition has taken place, so that the pulp when removed is soft, and appears as if it had been thoroughly boiled. They are now put into a trough, made by digging a hole 4 ft. deep, and paving it below and around with rough stones. In some cases, a portion of the nuts is boiled in iron or earthenware pots, and then mixed with the unboiled portion before putting into the trough. They are now pounded with wooden pestles by men standing around the trough, until the pulp is quite detached from the surface of the hard nut ; the whole is removed from the trough and piled in a heap, and the stones are taken out, leaving the oily fibrous pulp, which is put into a pot with a small quantity of water under a good fire, and well stirred until the oil begins to melt out. The pulp is then put into a rough net, open at both ends, to which are attached two or three short sticks, by turning which in opposite directions the oil is squeezed out through the nets ; it runs into a receiver or tub, leaving the fibre behind. The longer the oil-nuts remain underground, the thicker the oil will be when made, the quality will also he inferior, and the smell bad. On the other hand, the shorter the time, within certain limits, during which the nuts are underground, the better will be the oil made from them. It is evident from this rough mode of preparation that the oil is liable to contain more or less vegetable fibre, which is apt to act as a ferment, and render the oil rancid In course of time, besides holding in suspension a vary ing quantity of water. These impurities in the commercial oil are further increased by the fact that, when the oil is brought down to the coast, should no vessel be there prepared to receive it, it is frequently buried in the sand till an opportunity arrives for exporting it.