AGENTS FOR EFFECTING CHANGES OF PLACE AND TIME § 1. Transportation. § 2. Location as an element in value. § 3. Re lation of time to value. 1 4. Indirect agents for hastening the uses of goods. § 5. Agencies for postponing the uses of goods. § 8. Increasing control of man over nature. 1 7. Natural diversity both of direct and indirect goods. § 8. The improvement of technical processes and meth ods. § 9. The economic test of technical improvements. 1 10. The psy chology of indirect valuation. § 11. The element of time in the valuation of indirect agents.
§ 1. Transportation. The third way in which change can be effected by the indirect use of agents to bring objects nearer to the state of fitness to be direct goods, is by moving them from place to place. Indeed, it has been said that all of man's part in stuff- and in form-change can be reduced to the changing of the place of things so that they may be acted upon by each other. Yet there is a distinction between the changes in form and in stuff, just considered, and the change in place, here indicated. Change of stuff is arranging things so that there is a readjustment in their internal composition ; change of form is applying tools and forces to alter the shape of the objects (often by combining them with other objects) ; and change of place is the movement of an object, as a whole, in space to bring it to a different location. Two or more of these changes may be combined. Felling a tree is both a form and a place change, sawing it into boards is a form change, hauling it to market is a place change, carving it into furniture is a form change. When the thing thus moved, or enabled to move, is the man himself, the object that aids is a direct good. Such is the fallen tree bridging the stream, the floating log which saves the man from drowning, the boat on which he rides on the water, the horse carrying its rider, the sled drawn by dogs or by reindeer. When the agents are used to aid in the move ment of other goods their uses are indirect.
The means of transportation have had a long and complex development. They compose to-day a mass of equipment com parable in extent and importance with the agencies that are used to effect changes in stuff and in form. The floating log has been replaced in turn by raft, canoe, sail boat, and steam ship. The natural waterway has, where necessary, been deep ened and widened, or has been artificially extended by canals, some to connect rivers and others to unite the waters of the oceans. The early trails through the woods have given place to wagon roads and to railways. The heavy oxcarts have been succeeded by wagons, railway cars, locomotives, automobiles, and flying-machines.
§ 2. Location as an element in value. From the first, of course, all these agencies must have been more or less vaguely recognized as useful and their results as valuable. The rela tion between location and value, however, tho obvious and simple in many concrete cases, has as a matter of general theory proved difficult of comprehension to a great many minds. Even careful thinkers long found it easy to attribute great importance to operations such as those of agriculture which appear to bring something physical into existence, yet to misconceive the nature of the changes made in value through manufacturing and transportation. This was the error of the eighteenth century economists of France—known as the Physi ocrats—and it has been a recurrent error ever since. It seems to be naturally easy for men to conceive of value as inherent in things rather than as resulting from a relation between things and men. Yet the truth is so obvious that physical proximity is a very significant element in value. The treasure chest which is lost forever in the depths of the ocean has be come and will remain utterly worthless to man. Brought to shore, where the treasure could be used, it might be worth a fabulous amount. So anything, to be of the greatest value, must at a certain moment be close at hand or at the right place. Clearly then those various agencies which move things from one place to another the better to meet the consumer's desires, must be regarded as contributing factors in the value of the direct use obtained.
The logic of the matter is quite plain in the light of biologic evolution. Movement is necessary to the existence of animals. The animal, in the order of evolution a higher form of life than the plants, which are more fixed, goes to seek food and in so doing opens up a wider range of choices in life. With few exceptions the only way in which animals can better their economic environment is by moving themselves to a place where goods are more plentiful. In this matter of locomotion the birds have attained the highest point in evolution. Man, while he has by mechanical means greatly added to his own powers of locomotion, has also developed to a very high de gree of perfection his ability to move other things. He trans• ports them to the places where they can best serve his purposes, and by this means he adds enormously to his income. Trans portation is thus one of the earliest and most natural of the ways in which man increases his income, and the elaborate equipment which he has developed for the transportation of goods finds its economic uses in the gratification of human de sires. The subject of transportation, with its various rami fications, furnishes some of the most interesting problems of valuation with which the student of economics has to deal.
§ 3. Relation of time to value. As the days and hours succeed each other in the life of man, they bring with them a constant succession of desires, forming an endless stream as long as life itself endures. To meet and satisfy these desires a corresponding stream of goods is necessary. (See Chapter 3, section 10.) Nature furnishes man with the raw material for this stream of goods, and even to a limited extent provides fruits and other things all ready for direct use. But in com bining and using the agents at his command, man must give much thought and effort to the end that the direct goods may ripen at the particular time when the need for them arises. All desire is related to a particular point of time, and man, in a variety of ways, controls the time at which the uses of goods become available.
One way in which this control is exerted is through the sim ple process of saving goods for future use. If the goods are durable, a present surplus, or even things which answer to strong present desires, may, if the claims of the future make a sufficient appeal, be reserved for use at some later time. Choices of this sort between present and future are constantly being made, and constitute an important aspect of our eco nomic activity. A new machine may be driven twenty thou sand miles in the first year, with a large resulting deprecia tion, and large expense for upkeep. Or its use may with care be extended over a number of years. The gamily may spend its full yearly income, or lay aside something for the future. The business man may work long hours to accumulate a for tune in his early years, or he may take more leisure and en joyment as he goes along.
All the decisions in such cases depend on one's mental atti tude, one's habit of life, toward present and future. Men differ greatly in this respect, ranging all the way from the spendthrift to the miser. At a later point in our study we shall have occasion to inquire more deeply into this matter.
§ 4. Indirect agencies for hastening the uses of goods. Our present concern is with the use of indirect agents for the purpose of controlling the time at which the uses of goods become available. Man contrives agencies both to hasten and to postpone the processes of nature, and thereby makes goods better or worse for his purposes. Greenhouses are built and equipped with heating apparatus in order to produce early vegetables and flowers; incubators and brooders are employed to provide the market with the tender broiler earlier in the season than the mother hen would do it; apparatus for making artificial ice is operated in the summer time in places where ice is sure to be a free good a few months later; southern fruits and vegetables are shipped north by fast freight to places which within a few weeks will have an abundant supply of their own home-grown produce. In all these cases the thing that man is striving to do is to make things available at an earlier point of time. And he employs a very considerable amount of apparatus (indirect agents) to accomplish his end.
Likewise the time of indirect uses may be hastened by the use of other indirect agents (of "lower rank"). The sapling is planted in the forest to hasten the process of nature in grow ing wood to be used in industry ; the drying-kiln makes it pos sible to use the lumber newly cut ; gas and electricity lighting the factory make possible overtime work to fill rush orders; fuel is burnt in the locomotive to bring to the factory the ma terials needed just then. A large part of the transportation by express is to bring machinery and supplies to the factory when urgently needed, and hundreds of dollars have been paid thus for the shipment of a single machine across the conti nent, when a few dollars would have paid the cost of shipment by slower freight.
§ 5. Agencies for postponing the uses of goods. Of as great importance perhaps are the various agencies for keeping goods in proper condition for use at some future time. Grain is regularly kept for months in barns and elevators where it is protected from the weather. Fruit, vegetables, dressed poultry, and other meats are preserved in refrigerators and cold-storage plants, and fruits and vegetables are also kept fresh by chemical means or by being "canned" in jars or other vessels from which germs are excluded. Large stocks of build ing materials and other things not ordinarily spoken of as perishable are nevertheless kept under roof to safeguard them from the elements. In some cases the indirect agent is many steps removed from the final gratification of desires. There are factories employed in making paint, cement, creosote, pitch, tar, roofing, etc.—things destined to be used in turn to make, repair, or preserve structures which shelter stocks of other indirect agents for uses that are still in the more or less dis tant future. There is method, of course, in the whole complex process. The end finally achieved is the production of "di rect" goods at the particular time when they are most desired by men.
nical processes of industry have been growing more complex, and the stocks of agents used in these processes have been in creasing since the beginning of history, but never so rapidly as in the past century. This has resulted in an enormous mass and variety of indirect agents, the existence of which is an essential aspect of civilized life. Many materials are found in forms and in places where they cannot serve man's purposes. Energy is found dissipating itself in ways useless to him. As man grows in power of control over nature, he strives to apply these forces and materials in such ways and at such places as will best serve his purposes and gratify his desires. If he can arm himself with the energies of mine and torrent, he can re act with giant strength upon the material world. He refuses to accept passively its conditions and to live on its grudging gifts. He becomes its fashioner—in a sense its creator. His intelligence and his desires are more and more potent in de termining the substance, form, place, and order of the physical things about him. He transforms the world in which he lives. Accompanying and guiding the complex processes of industry are numberless acts of choice and valuation. Man's desires for direct goods and his resulting valuations motivate and direct his productive activity. The technical processes of produc tion, in turn, have their reflex influences upon values. To ar rive as fully as possible at an understanding of these inter relations is the task of the theory of value.
§ 7. Natural diversity both of direct and of indirect goods. One of the basic facts in the situation we are trying to analyze is the natural diversity of things. All the efforts of men in the most developed economy can not annul or oblit erate the differences in the quality of goods. Desirable goods are limited in quantity and vary in quality. Hence they have value, and some are more valuable than others. If they were all alike, they would all have the same relation to human de sires, and would all have the same value. Likewise durable material agents and sources of power are limited in quantity and vary in convenience of location and in their efficiency. As men seek to gratify their desires, they attach importance to these agencies for the achievement of their ends. Each is valued for its uses. Anything which is seen to have a rela tion, direct or indirect, immediate or remote, to the gratifica tion of man's desires, is brought within the circle of economic goods• § 8. The improvement of technical processes and meth ods. The invention, improvement, organization, and use of the various agencies which we have been considering, makes up the whole of man's economic activity. This is, of course, a very broad field, difficult of comprehension as a whole. It comprises a vast range of technical achievement. In the list of those who, from the beginnings of human culture, have made contributions to the slow task of improvement, we should find Adam the gardener, Abel the keeper of sheep, Tubal-Cain, "artificer in brass and iron," Jubal the "father of all such as handle the harp and organ," Archimides, Gutenberg, Watts, Fulton, Elias Howe, Samuel Morse, Bessemer, Edison, and countless others, known and unknown—peasants, artisans, nat ural scientists, and practical inventors.
The technical improvements made by such men have been among the most important of the instrumentalities of eco nomic progress. They involve in practically all cases some bet ter combination or joint use of complementary agents. The technical problem is usually a matter of the most efficient proportioning, combining, or utilizing of different indirect agents. • In a mechanism, if one part is increased without increasing the other parts, a point is reached where it does not add to the result. If in the building of a bridge the weight of the floor is increased beyond a certain point, the rest of the bridge being left unchanged, the bridge is weakened instead of strengthened. If the weight of the iron in the framework is increased beyond a certain point without strengthening the piers, the structure as a whole is weakened. If the piers are greatly enlarged, the added materials and effort may not weaken the bridge absolutely, but they dam up the stream, and thus increase the force of the waters pushing against the structure. At the same time, in flooding the adjacent lands they cause another result which was not intended or desired.
A bicycle frame, like a chain, is no stronger than its weak est part; if the strength of all parts of the wheel and frame is in proper proportion to the strain they must bear, added weight to any single part weakens the whole machine. The development of the modern type of bicycle, by many experi ments, is a good example of the adjustment of materials ac cording to the principle of technical efficiency.
A variation of the same principle is seen in chemical com binations. Exact proportions of materials must be used to get a certain result. Increasing one ingredient will not in crease the desired product. Either the added part, not enter ing at all into the compound, remains as a useless or an in jurious impurity, or it unites to form a product different from the one desired.
Thus it is in all the practical arts. The farmer must have rain to water the crops, but too much may ruin them. The cook must have fuel for heat—enough to bake but not enough to burn. The smith watches the glowing metal and puts it upon the anvil when it is just at the welding point. The laundryman puts a tinge of blue in the white clothes; with less or more the clothes are either too yellow or too blue. The painter must use the proper proportion of oil and white lead or the paint will not be durable. The plasterer must mix neither too much nor too little sand with the lime if he will make a lasting coating on the wall. The potter seeks to have the heat of the kiln exactly right to give the perfect glaze to the stone- and china-ware. There is this technical problem of the right proportion quite independent of the value of the goods. The idea of economic utilization arises when man recognizes these technical facts and their relations to value in his use of a limited supply of agents.
§ 9. The economic test of technical improvements. It is a notorious fact, however, that not every improvement of technical method is advantageous from the economic point of view. The Patent Office at Washington is a veritable grave yard of ingenious inventions that are not commercially profit able. The inventor, in order to gain material rewards and at the same time to benefit mankind, must study not only the technical side of his problem, but the question of value as well. Many technical improvements of method cost more than they are worth. The market may be too small to warrant the increased investment, or many other difficulties may stand in the The ultimate test determining whether a new proc ess or a new device is better to use than the old one is not technical, but economic. It must effect a net increase in value. If it occasions extra costs, the additional advantages must more than offset them.
§ 10. The psychology of indirect valuation. We have now pointed out the logical relationship between the desires of man and the valuations which he puts upon indirect agents. Noth ing seems more simple or obvious than that the agent is valued as an agent—as an instrumentality in the gratification of de sire. However, it is well to recall that the process of valua tion is not always as logical and as consciously calculated as it would seem. The reactions of men are in large part im pulsive, instinctive, imitative, and habitual, rather than rig orously logical. But experience and reflection alter the choices and extend their range. The desire which at one time was aroused only by the direct good, becomes more or less spread over all the indirect goods connected with it. Thus men, without deliberately and consciously reasoning on the matter, desire directly many of the things which technically I see, for example, ch. 38, on Abstinence and production.
are of only indirect use. In many cases instincts have prob ably evolved to affect desire for indirect goods whose real rela tion to desires is never fully perceived or understood by the person choosing. The desires of civilized men have become diffused over, and now pervade, the immense complex equip ment of the economic world, and both the direct and the re motely indirect goods color the feelings and influence the con duct of men. They are alike the objects of desire. Hesitation and conscious calculation do, however, occur in some choices, and have occurred in many other choices which have now be come habitual. And in all highly organized business, where production is for the market, the business man calculates not only consciously, but laboriously and with great care, both the desires of consumers and the relation of indirect agents to those desires.
§ 11. The element of time in the valuation of indirect agents. There is one more important aspect to the problem of the valuation of indirect goods. If the value of the indirect use is but the reflection of the direct use, it might, on first thought, seem that it should always be of the same magnitude. If an agent, A, used indirectly, produces a limited number of direct uses, x, y, z, it would seem that the sum of their values should be the same as the value of the agent, A, itself. If the indirectness of the process were the only factor in the case this would be true. As a matter of fact it normally re quires a certain period of time for the direct use to be ob tained. The uses of an agent are frequently spread over many years. Because of this lapse of time the value of the agent A at the present moment is not by any means the same as the ag gregate value of its uses in the future when they will occur. The element of time introduces a different problem which will call for consideration at a later point in our study of the prob lem of I Particularly in Part IV on Time-value and interest.