ADULT EDUCATION, a phrase originally meaning educa tion of adults who have not been properly educated as children. As the educational system improved, the need for such education diminished, but as democratic government developed, it brought with it the need, felt by everyone, for education in citizenship. Adult education in this sense has been described as "an insepa rable aspect of citizenship" and the new movement, which dates from the beginning of this century, has extended to democratic countries all over the world, including such countries as Germany and the United States. Because these countries had early pos sessed a comprehensive system of elementary and secondary edu cation, they have not felt the need for adult education in its original sense. (See Adult Education in the United States, page 185.) It is often also distinguished as non-vocational adult educa tion from the vocational education now given to adults in technical and commercial colleges in many parts of the country.
The new movement has taken many forms and is carried on by many different organizations which held ideals that were at the same time high and practical. Thus in England the Workers' Educational Association, founded by Albert Mansbridge in 1903, originally aimed at bringing together working-class or ganizations to provide for an education, designed not to take meh out of their class or trade, but to equip them, whatever their occupation in life should be, for the work of citizenship. It was to be a highway and not a ladder. The education it desired to bring into being was to be broad, impartial and scholarly, was to aim at a higher university standard and was to enlist the aid of the universities and of public authorities.
The universities were asked to help in maintaining the standard of education, but the choice of subjects and of tutors was to be with the students. It was recognized that adult students bring an experience of life and an understanding of practical problems which are as important a contribution as the more theoretical knowledge of the teachers, and that adult education, therefore, requires a technique and organization in which both students and university trained teachers have their parts to play.
The total amount of education of this kind given in democratic countries is very considerable and is rapidly increasing. The movement is still young and its future organization is still un certain. Its great strength in the past was that it has been run by voluntary associations and has in a real sense been a university controlled in the main by its students. It suffers, however, from the weakness of administration and the fluctuating enthusiasm characteristic of all voluntary organizations. Its success in the future will depend on how far it can be connected more closely with public educational institutions on the one hand and organized labour on the other, without losing its voluntary character. The British Institute of Adult Education attempts to survey and co ordinate by the publication of its journal and other literature, and by the holding of conferences, the work of the various organ izations in the country which are concerned with adult education. The World Association of Adult Education is working to spread knowledge of adult education in all parts of the world.
See Final Report of the Adult Education Committee (Cmd. 321, 1919) and Journal of the British Institute. (A. D. L.) In the United States the term adult education is used to denote an educational movement for men and women, young and old, who no longer are in contact with formalized education and whose primary interest lies in a vocation but who possess a secondary interest in their own educational improvement as a sustained and continuing process. It is sometimes called "continuing education." It interprets graduation from any sort of schooling as a commencement of educational opportunity extending through out life.
While the movement was not recognized in the United States under the name "adult education" until 1924, its roots were already deeply imbedded in American life. The New England town meeting of the i 7th century formed the initial adult education venture of record in the English colonies of North America. It was a logical next step to the formation of the first lyceum in Massachusetts in 1826, a voluntary association of farmers and mechanics "for the purpose of self-culture, community instruc tion and mutual discussion of common public interests." The town lyceums made rapid growth and in 1839 more than 3,00o were in existence. They assumed an educational leadership with the years, Emerson, Thoreau, Lowell and Holmes among others lending them prestige. It was the example of the lyceum which led Bishop John H. Vincent and his colleagues in 1874 to expand a Sunday school association into a general adult education venture. The Chautauqua Institution (see LYCEUMS and CHAUTAUQUAS) resulted and in its train numerous imitators, later to be served by the commercial Chautauqua and lyceum circuits. The last quarter of the i9th century saw the beginnings of the university extension movement and with the loth century impetus to popular educa tion was given through Andrew Carnegie's large benefactions to public libraries. Meanwhile the tax-supported school system, as the compulsory school age was pushed upward, had instituted a series of vocational extensions, soon accompanied by such non vocational enterprises for adults as the voluntary evening high school.
The increase in public estimation of these agencies gave rise to many other forms of educational activity for adults. Most of them were based on the American tradition of education at cost, less than cost or no cost to the student. In addition there were devised, to meet the recognized educational needs of large num bers of people, certain commercial organizations known as private correspondence schools (see CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS) operated for profit under modern salesmanship methods. Almost wholly vocational and technical in nature, these courses attracted such numbers that in 1927 the current enrolment was estimated at more than 2,000,000 persons who were annually expending $7o,000,000 for the instruction offered.
An inquiry into adult education needs and possibilities in Eng land and Scotland, made as a part of the British ministry of reconstruction report of 1919, had resulted in the phenomenal growth of adult classes in those countries. Increasing recognition of the British movement and observance of a considerable American interest in various forms of continuing education led to an inquiry into American conditions, instituted in 1924 by the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Five volumes constituting reports on as many broad phases of the general subject were pub lished, a series of regional and national conferences of teachers and leaders of adults was held and, in March, 1926, there was formed the American Association for Adult Education with head quarters in New York. It serves as a national clearing house for information, sponsors and initiates researches and studies, and supervises and conducts experiments and demonstrations in co-operation with local and national agencies.
Urban and Rural Community Organization for Adult Education.—Theinitial attempt in the United States to organize an entire community's educational facilities with special reference to the adult and his needs was made in Cleveland in 1924. The Cleveland Conference for Educational Co-operation resulted and later a complementary body, the Adult Education Association of Cleveland. In 1925, Buffalo, organized similarly, conducted a self survey under the auspices of a co-operative group known as the Buffalo Educational council. The survey has since been published and the recommendations of the council are rapidly becoming effective. The Cleveland and Buffalo examples have brought together like groups in Chicago, Detroit, St. Louis and Brooklyn. Plans for organization have been made in eight other cities. In addition, Dallas, Texas, in its Civic Federation and Institute for social education, founded in 1920, furnishes perhaps the best example in the country of a private educational venture for adults. Representatives of the various community enterprises have formed a national community conference which has affiliated itself with the National Community Foundation. The latter organization is conducting, on an experimental basis, community organization activities and educational programmes in 6o small cities and towns of the Middle Atlantic States. It co-operates with its related organization, the Swarthmore Chautauqua. Michi gan state college is experimenting with continuing education for rural areas in two Michigan counties selected for the purpose. A preliminary survey has been made and responsibility has been assumed by local groups. The California State board of education has likewise initiated a rural county demonstration. A privately supported small town circuit in western New York has been formed, initiating programmes in 16 centres.
Private Technical, Commercial and Correspondence Schools.—Thousandsof business schools (see COMMERCIAL EDU