Albania - Mediaeval and Modern History

ALBANIA - MEDIAEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY After the division of the Roman empire, northern and southern Albania became the Byzantine provinces of Dyrrachium and Niko polis. Overrun by the Goths in the 4th and 5th centuries, they were reconquered by Justinian in 535. In 64o northern Albania was invaded by the Serbs. In 861 the Bulgarians conquered southern Albania, defeated the Serbs (893-927) and established themselves (976-1014) in the greater part of the peninsula; but in 1014 the emperor Basil II. reconquered southern Albania, which remained under Byzantine rule until 1204, when Michael Com nenus, of the imperial family, founded the independent Despotate of Epirus, which included southern Albania, Acarnania, and Aetolia. In 1318 the Despotate passed to the princes of the house of Orsini, who ruled it until 1358. Meanwhile the Sicilian kings acquired and held central Albania (1271-1368). In 118o the Serbs had re-installed themselves in the provinces of Scutari and Prizren, and Stefan Dos/ian (1331-58) included all Albania in his ephemeral empire. Large numbers of Albanians under Jin Bua Spata and Peter Liosha emigrated southward before Dus/ian's hordes, took Yannina and Arta, and penetrated as far as Acarnania and Aetolia (1358), while colonies were established in the Morea, Attica and Boeotia.

After the death of Dushan Albania fell under the rule of native chieftains; but a Norman knight named Balsha, who had served under Dushan, established a dynasty at Scutari (1366) and induced the chieftains to co-operate under his leadership against the Serbs and Bulgarians. The power of the Balshas was, however, short-lived. At the close of the i4th century the Venetians estab lished themselves at Durazzo, Scutari, and Antivari, and in 1421 the dynasty came to an end.

Period of Turkish Rule.-The advance of the Turks, who cap tured Yannina in 1431, reunited the Albanian chieftains 66) under the immortal George Kastriota of Kroia (see SKAN DERBEG), and thereafter under the Venetians. But in 1478 Kroia surrendered Scutari in 1479, Durazzo in 1502, and in 1571 Antivari and Dulcigno, the last Venetian possessions in Albania. Many Albanians fled with their Venetian allies to Dalmatia and Italy. Although more than half the Albanian race abandoned Christianity -in the lowlands that it might enjoy equality with the Turks, and in the north-eastern highlands that it might obtain their support against its hereditary foes, the Slays-Ottoman sovereignty was never effectively established, and against it the Albanians inter mittently revolted. In about 176o Mehmed Bushati, pasha of Scutari, rallied the northern clansmen and threw off Turkish suzerainty. His son, Mahmoud, the Black, routed three Turkish armies, but with the defeat of his grandson Mustafa, in 1831, the power of the Bushati was broken. Meanwhile, in southern Albania, the able Ali Pasha of Tepelen (b. about 175o), by a combination of cunning and brutality, established a virtually independent state with Yannina as its capital, and maintained direct relations with foreign Powers, but was overthrown by a Turkish army in 1822.

The revival of nationalism in Greece, Bulgaria and Serbia, coupled with the decline of the Turkish empire, induced the Alban ians to prepare for and to seek autonomy within the empire while availing themselves of its protection until they were prepared for independence. In 1879 the Porte sought to turn Albanian nation alism to its advantage by encouraging the formation at Prizren of the Albanian League, which opposed with some success the cession of Albanian territory, as provided for by the Treaty of Berlin, to Montenegro and Greece. Once the League had fulfilled its purpose the Porte suppressed it, although not without much bloodshed. But Albanians at home and abroad continued to work clandestinely in the national cause. In 1908 they threw in their lot with the Young Turks-whose success was due largely to their support-in the hope that in consequence they would obtain autonomy and edu cational liberty. The new regime proved, however, infinitely worse than previous conditions, and the Albanians rose in revolt against Ottomanization. Throughout 1910-11 they struggled unsuccess fully, but in 1912 a general rising was successful; the vilayet of Kosovo was liberated, Monastir threatened, and in August the Turks were obliged to grant autonomy to Albania, which was to include the vilayets of Scutari, Kosovo, Yannina and Monastir. But the Balkan States had envisaged the partition of Albania between them and hastened to precipitate war with Turkey. The Albanians, wishing neither to be classed as Turks and share their fate, nor to facilitate the overthrow of their protectors, and with out any central administration to guide them, remained neutral except at Yannina and Scutari which were vital to their national existence. On Nov. 28, 1912, Ismail Kemal Vlora, diplomatically supported by Austria-Hungary and Italy, who were opposed to the access of any third Power to the Adriatic, proclaimed Albanian independence at Valona. But Russia and France supported the Balkan allies, and a general European war was perhaps only averted by British arbitration. The solution of the problem was entrusted to a Conference of Ambassadors in London, which acknowledged the principle of Albanian autonomy on Dec. 20, and on July 29, 1913, declared Albania an independent sovereign State; but its boundaries included less than half the Albanian race.

The Albanian State.-Prince William of Wied, selected by the Powers to rule Albania, landed at Durazzo on March 7, 1914; but the machinations and the intrigues of various neighbouring States rendered his position untenable. Unable to extend his authority into the interior, he left Albania on Sept. 3, although he did not abdicate. Meanwhile, to resist the incorporation of southern Albania in the new State, Greece instigated during February the constitution of a "Provisional Government of Autonomous Epirus" supported by Greeks masquerading as insurgents. The interna tional situation prevented the Powers from interfering, and anarchy continued until Greece was authorized officially to re occupy southern Albania in the autumn. Italian troops occupied Valona in Dec. 1914, and in 1916 the whole of southern Albania, except the Korcha region, which was occupied from Salonika by the French, who established an autonomous administration. Early in 1915, the Serbs and Montenegrins occupied northern and central Albania after severe fighting, but after their defeat by the Austro Bulgarian armies these regions were occupied by the latter in 1916. Albania had no central government, although Essad Pasha posed as its president, and local policies were pursued. On June 3, 1917, General Ferrero proclaimed the independence of the whole of Albania under Italian protection, thereby repudiating those clauses of the Pact of London (1915) which provided for its partition.

Albania after the War.

Af ter the Armistice the Italians occu pied most of the country, the French remained at Korcha until June 1920, the Yugoslays occupied north-eastern Albania, and at Scutari an inter-allied administration, the successor of the inter national administration temporarily established in 1914, governed until Feb. 1920. In Dec. 1918 a National Assembly at Durazzo elected a provisional government and delegation to the Peace Conference. In Feb. 192o the Albanians, exasperated by Italy's apparent intention to remain in occupation, her readiness to sacri fice Albanian territory to Greece and Yugoslavia for advantages elsewhere, and the refusal of the Yugoslays to withdraw while the Italians remained, formed a fresh government at Lushnja with a mandate to obtain the restoration of independence, elected a council of regency composed of a representative of each of the four religious sects, and selected Tirana as the capital. In June the Albanians drove the Italians into Valona. The latter, appre ciating the folly of defeating their own ends by alienating Albanian good will, thereupon recognized the Albanian Government (Aug. 2, 1920) and evacuated the country. The Yugoslays, now in turn asked to withdraw, advanced on Tirana ; but the Powers intimated their 'displeasure, and the Yugoslays thereupon withdrew to their original positions. While ostentatiously declaring for the re establishment of Albania as delimited in 1913 that they might not prejudice their case against Italy in the Adriatic dispute which was settled by the Rapallo Treaty (Nov. 192o), the Yugoslays worked surreptitiously to acquire north-eastern Albania for strategic reasons. A"Mirdite Republic," proclaimed at Prizren ( June 192r), was unsupported outside Yugoslavia ; and a serious invasion of Albania, with the intention to detach the north and confront Europe with an accomplished fact, was frustrated by the inter vention of the British Government (Nov. 7), which convened a meeting of the Council of the League of Nations, of which Albania had become a member on Dec. 17, 1920. Meanwhile the Confer ence of Ambassadors finally overruled all claims to Albanian terri tory by confirming (Nov. 9, 1921) the 1913 frontier with the exception of minor rectifications, at the same time declaring that the integrity of Albania's frontiers was necessary to the strategic security of Italy. The frontier question was finally closed on Aug. 2, 1926, by the signature in Paris of a protocol, and in the mean time the rectifications caused much tension between Albania and its neighbours.

Internal Politics.

On Dec. 25, 1921, Albania's sixth post-war cabinet took office; it included Djafer Ypi (Premier), Fan Noli (Foreign Affairs), and Ahmed Zogu (Interior). With the exception of an Irredentist insurrectionary movement in March, 1922, perfect tranquillity reigned throughout the country until June 1924. Zogu became premier in a reconstituted cabinet in Dec. 1922, and with the assistance of foreign advisers much progress was made towards consolidation and development. But Albania was hopelessly handicapped financially, not being supported, as other Balkan States had been, by a foreign Power; and rumours of disturbances deliberately spread by interested parties dis couraged foreign private enterprise. Late in 1923 Zogu was accused by the Democratic Party of obstructing, in the interests of the land-owning classes, various progressive and agrarian reforms, and by the irredentists of pro-Yugoslav tendencies because he turned his back upon irredentist dreams. His resignation in Feb. 1924 did not pacify his opponents, who contended that his in fluence remained. During June northern and southern Albania rose against him and his colleagues, who were compelled to seek refuge abroad. Mgr. Noli's revolutionary Government succeeded in balancing the budget, due to the ability of M. Gurakuchi (Finance), but otherwise accomplished little. Meanwhile, Zogu, who had retired to Belgrade, organized with Yugoslav assistance a well-equipped force, with which he returned to Albania and ex pelled Noli.

The Albanian Republic.

OnJan. 22, 1925, a National As sembly voted the proclamation of a republic, and on Feb. 1, Zogu was elected president for seven years, the regency being abolished. By a generous attitude towards political opponents, Zogu con solidated his position, at the same time making it clear that, although grateful for Yugoslav support, he did not intend to be come Yugoslavia's vassal. During Sept. 1923 negotiations with Italy for a loan were concluded and a national bank established, an Italian financial group being the principal shareholder. Re lations with Greece, strained over the Turko-Greek exchange of populations, in which Greece sought to include the Muslim Albanians of Epirus, were improved through the mediation of the League; and a conciliatory policy towards Yugoslavia improved relations with that country, although proposals for the conclusion of a pact of friendship and security were received unfavourably in Belgrade as had been previous proposals. Zogu, although anxious to consolidate his position by obtaining support from a neighbouring Power without sacrificing independence, and although doubtful of the competence of the League—which had failed in his predecessor's case—to prevent his overthrow by bands from across the border, hesitated to turn to Italy, which had acquired already a commercial foothold in the country. But an insurrection in northern Albania in Nov. 1926, perhaps externally inspired, forced his hand. By the Treaty of Tirana, concluded on Nov. 27, Italy and Albania recognized that any disturbance directed against the status quo of Albania is opposed to their reciprocal political interests, and to safeguard it undertook to give their mutual sup port and cordial collaboration. This treaty, which was registered at Geneva on Feb. 8, 1927, with a supplementary letter explaining that Italy could not interfere in the external or internal affairs of Albania except at the latter's request, precluded further un solicited interference from across the border and raised a storm of protest in Yugoslavia. Preparations in Yugoslavia to overthrow Zogu were reported by Italy during April 1927 to the Powers, and a grave international crisis was only averted by the pressure which they brought to bear. The arrest at Durazzo on May 22 of Djurashkovitch, an Albanian subject alleged to have been engaged in espionage for Yugoslavia, provoked a further crisis, and the matter was only settled by the intervention of the Powers. A defensive alliance between Italy and Albania for 20 years was concluded at Tirana on Nov. 22, 1927.

On Sept. 1, 1928, Zogu became king as Zog 1. (q.v.). He con solidated his financial position by a series of loans from Italy which culminated, after a period of strained relations, in the agreements of 1936. The latter remained in force until 1939, when Italian troops landed at Durazzo and Valona on April 7 and in vaded the country. The conquest was completed in two days, and King Zog fled. On Apr. 12, 1939 the Albanian assembly proffered the crown to Victor Emmanuel of Italy but voted to retain ves tiges of the nation's autonomy.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Principal references: Parliamentary Debates, House Bibliography.-Principal references: Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons (19o9-27) ; League of Nations, Official Journal and As sembly Records, also relevant reports and documents (1919-27) ; C. Chekrezi, Albania, Past and Present (New York, 1919), bibl. ; Foreign Office Handbook No. 17 (192o), bibl.; Contemporary Press (192o-27) ; E. P. Stickney, Southern Albania, 1912-23 (Stanford Univ. Press, 1926) ; J. Swire, King Zog's Albania (New York, 1937) . (J. Sw.; X.)