ANGLO-NORMAN LITERATURE. The French lan guage (q.v.) came over to England with William the Conqueror. During the whole of the 12th century it shared with Latin the distinction of being the literary language of England, and it was in use at the court until the 14th century. It was not until the reign of Henry IV. that English became the native tongue of the kings of England. After the loss of the French provinces, schools for the teaching of French were established in England, among the most celebrated of which we may quote that of Marlborough. The language then underwent certain changes which gradually dis tinguished it from the French spoken in France ; but, except for some graphical characteristics, from which certain rules of pro nunciation are to be inferred, the changes to which the language was subjected were the individual modifications of the various authors, so that, while we may still speak of Anglo-Norman writers, an Anglo-Norman language, properly so called, grad ually ceased to exist. The prestige enjoyed by the French language, which, in the 14th century, the author of the Maniere de language calls "le plus bel et le plus gracious language et plus noble parler, apres latin d'escole, qui soit au monde et de touz Benz mieulx prisee et amee que nul autre (quar Dieux le fist si douce et amiable principalement a l'oneur et loenge de luy mesmes. Et pour ce it peut comparer au parler des angels du ciel, pour la grand doulceur et biaultee d'icel)," was such that it was not till 1363 that the chancellor opened the parliamentary session with an English speech. And, although the Hundred Years' War led to a decline in the study of French and the disappearance of Anglo Norman literature, the French language continued, through some vicissitudes, to be the classical language of the courts of justice until the 17th century. It is still the language of the Channel islands, though there too it tends more and more to give way before the advance of English.
It will be seen from the above that the most flourishing period of Anglo-Norman literature was from the beginning of the 12th century to the end of the first quarter of the 13th. The end of this period is generally said to coincide with the loss of the French provinces to Philip Augustus, but literary and political history do not correspond quite so precisely, and the end of the first period would be more accurately denoted by the appearance of the history of William the Marshal in 1225 (published for the Societe de l'histoire de France, by Paul Meyer, 3 vols., 1891-1901). It owes its brilliancy largely to the protection accorded by Henry II. of England to the men of letters of his day. "He could speak French and Latin well, and is said to have known something of every tongue between `the Bay of Biscay and the Jordan.' He was probably the most highly educated sovereign of his day, and amid all his busy active life he never lost his interest in literature and intellectual discussion ; his hands were never empty, they al ways had either a bow or a book" (Dict. of Nat. Biog.). Wace and Benoit de Sainte-More compiled their histories at his bidding, and it was in his reign that Marie de France composed her poems. An event with which he was closely connected, viz., the murder of Thomas Becket, gave rise to a whole series of writings, some of which are purely Anglo-Norman. In his time appeared the works of Beroul and Thomas respectively, as well as some of the most celebrated of the Anglo-Norman romans d'aventure. It is impor tant to keep this fact in mind when studying the different works which Anglo-Norman literature has left us.
Epic and Romance.—The French epic came over to England at an early date. We know that a Chanson de Roland was sung at the battle of Hastings, and we possess Anglo-Norman mss. of a few chansons de geste. The Pelerinage de Charlemagne (Kosch witz, Alt f ranzosische Bibliothek, 1883) was, for instance, only preserved in an Anglo-Norman manuscript of the British Museum (now lost), although the author was certainly a Parisian. The old est manuscript of the Chanson de Roland that we possess is also a manuscript written in England, and amongst the others of less importance we may mention La Chancun de Willame, the ms. of which has (June 1903) been published in facsimile at Chiswick (cf. Suchier's edition in Bibliotheca Normanico. T. viii. [iii] and Elizabeth Hearns Tyler [Oxford Univ. Press, 1916] ). Al though the diffusion of epic poetry in England did not actually inspire any new chansons de geste, it developed the taste for this class of literature, and the epic style in which the tales of Horn, of Bovon de Hampton, of Guy of Warwick (still unpublished), of Waldef (still unpublished) and of Fulk Fitz Warine are treated, is certainly partly due to this circumstance. Although the last of these works has come down to us only in a prose version, it con tains unmistakable signs of a previous poetic form, and what we possess is really only a rendering into prose similar to the trans formations undergone by many of the chansons de geste (cf.
L. Brandin, Fouke Fitz Warin [1928] ).
The interinfluence of French and English literature can be studied in the Breton romances and the romans d'aventure even better than in the epic poetry of the period. The Lay of Orpheus is known to us only through an English imitation ; the Lai du cor was composed by Robert Biket, an Anglo-Norman poet of the 12th century (Wulff, Lund, 1888). The lais of Marie de France were written in England, and the greater number of the romances composing the matiere de Bretagne seems to have passed from England to France through the medium of Anglo-Norman. The legends of Merlin and Arthur, collected in the Historic Regum Britanniae by Geoffrey of Monmouth (d. 1.154), passed into French literature bearing the character which the bishop of St. Asaph had stamped upon them. Chretien de Troyes' Perceval (c.
I I 7 5) is doubtless based on an Anglo-Norman poem. Robert de Boron (c. 1215) took the subject of his Merlin (published by G. Paris and J. Ulrich, 1886, 2 vols., Societe des Anciens Textes) from Geoffrey of Monmouth. Finally, the most celebrated love legend of the middle ages, and one of the most beautiful inven tions of world-literature, the story of Tristan and Iseult, tempted two authors, Beroul and Thomas, the first of whom is probably, and the second certainly, Anglo-Norman (see ARTHURIAN LEGEND; GRAIL, THE HOLY ; TRISTAN) . One Folie Tristan was composed in England in the last years of the 12th century. (For all these questions see Soc. des Anc. Textes, Muret's ed. 1903 ; Bedier's ed. 1902-05.) Less fascinating than the story of Tristan and Iseult, but nevertheless of considerable interest, are the two romans d'aventure of Hugh of Rutland, Ipomedon (published by Kolbing and Koschwitz, Breslau, 1889) and Protesilaus (still unpublished), written about 1185. The first relates the adventures of a knight who married the young duchess of Calabria, niece of King Me leager of Sicily, but was loved by Medea, the king's wife. The second poem is the sequel to Ipomedon, and deals with the wars and subsequent reconciliation between Ipomedon's sons, Daunus, the elder, lord of Apulia, and Protesilaus, the younger, lord of Calabria. Protesilaus defeats Daunus, who had expelled him from Calabria. He saves his brother's life, is reinvested with the duke dom of Calabria and, after the death of Daunus, succeeds to Apulia. He subsequently marries Medea, King Meleager's widow, who had helped him to seize Apulia, having transferred her affec tion for Ipomedon to his younger son (cf. Ward, Cat. of Rom., i. 728). To these two romances by an Anglo-Norman author, Ama das et Idoine, of which we possess only a Continental version, is to be added. Gaston Paris has proved indeed that the original was composed in England in the 12th century (An English Miscellany presented to Dr. Furnivall in Honour of his Seventy-fifth Birth day, 1901, 386-394) . The Anglo-Norman poem on the Life of Richard Coeur de Lion is lost, and an English version only has been preserved. About 125o Eustace of Kent introduced into Eng land the roman d'Alexandre in his Roman de toute chevalerie, many passages of which have been imitated in one of the oldest English poems on Alexander, namely, King Alisaunder (P. Meyer, Alexandre le grand, 1886, ii. 273, and Weber, Metrical Romances, Edinburgh).
Fabliaux, Fables and Religious Tales.—In spite of the in contestable popularity enjoyed by this class of literature, we have only seven fabliaux written in England. As to fables, one of the most popular collections in the middle ages was that writ ten by Marie de France, which she claimed to have translated from King Alfred. In the Contes moralises, written by Nicole Bozon shortly before 132o (Soc. Anc. Textes, 1889), a few fables bear a strong resemblance to those of Marie de France.
The religious tales deal mostly with the Mary Legends, and have been handed down to us in three collections: (i.) The Adgar's collection. Most of these were translated from William of Malmesbury (d. 1143?) by Adgar in the I2th century ("Adgar's Marien-Legenden," Altfr. Biblioth. ix. ; J. A. Herbert, Rom. xxxii. 394).
(ii.) The collection of Everard of Gateley, a monk of St. Ed mund at Bury, who wrote c. 125o three Mary Legends (Rom. xxix. 27).
(iii.) An anonymous collection of 6o Mary Legends composed c. 1250 (Brit. Museum Old Roy. 20 B, xiv.), some of which have been published in Suchier's Bibliotheca Normannica; in the Altfr. Bibl. See also Mussafia, "Studien zu den mittelalterlichen Marien legenden" in Sitzungsb. der Wien. Akademie (t. cxiii., cxv., cxix., cxxiii., cxxix.).
Another set of religious and moralizing tales is to be found in Chardri's Set dormans and Josaphat, c. 1216 (Koch, Altfr. Bibl., 1880; G. Paris, Poemes et legendes du naoyen age).
History.—Of far greater importance, however, are the works which constitute Anglo-Norman historiography. The first Anglo Norman historiographer is Geoffrey Gaimar, who wrote his Es torfie des Angles (between 1147 and 1151) for Dame Constance, wife of Robert Fitz-Gislebert (The Anglo-Norman Metrical Chronicle, Hardy and Martin, i. 1888) . This history com prised a first part (now lost), which was merely a translation of Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae, preceded by a history of the Trojan War, and a second part which carries us as far as the death of William Rufus. For this second part he has consulted historical documents, but he stops at the year 1087, just when he has reached the period about which he might have been able to give us some first-hand information. Similarly, Wace in his Roman de Rou et des ducs de Normandie (edit. Andresen, Heilbronn, 1877-79, 2 vols.), written 116o-74, stops at the battle of Tinchebray in 1107 just before the period for which he would have been so useful. His Brut or Geste des Bretons (Le Roux de Lincy, 1836-38, 2 vols.), written in 11S5, is merely a transla tion of Geoffrey of Monmouth. "Wace," says Gaston Paris, speaking of the Roman de Ron, "traduit en les abregeant des his toriens latins que nous possedons; mais ca et la it ajoute soit des contes populaires, par exemple sur Richard sur Robert soit des particularites qu'il savait par tradition (sur ce meme Robert le magnifique, sur l'expedition de Guillaume, etc.) et qui donnent a son oeuvre un reel interet historique. Sa langue est excellente; son style Clair, serre, simple, d'ordinaire assez monotone, vows plait par sa saveur archaique et quelquefois par une certaine grace et une certaine malice." The History of the Dukes of Normandyby Benoit de Sainte-More is based on the work of Wace. It was composed at the request of Henry II. about I170, and takes us as far as the year 1135 (edit. by Francisque Michel, 1836-44, Collection de documents inedits, 3 vols.). The 43,000 lines which it contains are of but little interest to the historian; they are too evidently the work of a romancier courtois, who takes pleasure in recounting love-adventures such as those he has described in his romance of Troy. Other works, however, give us more trustworthy informa tion, for example, the anonymous poem on Henry II.'s Conquest of Ireland in 1172 (edit. Francisque Michel, 1837), which, to gether with the Expugnatio hibernica of Giraud de Barri, consti tutes our chief authority on this subject. The Conquest of Ireland was republished in 1892 by Goddard Henry Orpen, under the title of The Song of Dermot and the Earl. Similarly, Jourdain Fan tosme, who was in the north of England in I 174, wrote an account of the wars between Henry II., his sons, William the Lion of Scot land and Louis VII., in I I 73 and I I 74 (Chronicle of the reigns of Stephen . . . III., edit. by Joseph Stevenson and Fr. Michel, 1886, pp. 202-307). Not one of these histories, however, is to be compared in value with The History of William the Marshal, Count o f -Striguil and Pembroke, regent of England from 1216-I 9, found and subsequently edited by Paul Meyer for the Societe de l'histoire de France (3 vols., 1891-1901). This masterpiece of historiography was composed in 1225 or 1226 by a professional poet of talent at the request of William, son of the marshal. It was compiled from the notes of the marshal's squire, John d'Early (d. 123o or 1231), who shared all the vicissitudes of his master's life and was one of the executors of his will. This work is of great value for the history of the period 1 186-12 1 9, as the infor mation furnished by John d'Early is either personal or obtained at first hand. In the part which deals with the period before 1186, it is true, there are various mistakes, due to the author's igno rance of contemporary history, but these slight blemishes are am ply atoned for by the literary value of the work. The style is con cise, the anecdotes are well told, the descriptions short and pic turesque; the whole constitutes one of the most living pictures of mediaeval society. Very pale by the side of this work appear the Chronique of Peter of Langtoft, written between 1311 and 132o, and mainly of interest for the period 1294-1307 (edit. by T. Wright, 1866-68) ; the Chronique of Nicholas Trevet (12 58 ? x328?), dedicated to Princess Mary, daughter of Edward I. (Duf fus Hardy, Descr. Catal. III., ; the Scala Chronica com piled by Thomas Gray of Heaton (died c. 1369), which carries us to the year 1362-63 (edit. by J. Stevenson, Maitland Club, Edin burgh, 1836) ; the Black Prince, a poem by the poet Chandos, composed about 1386, and relating the life of the Black Prince from 1346-76 (re-edited by Francisque Michel, 1883) ; and, lastly, the different versions of the Brutes., the form and historical importance of which have been indicated by Paul Meyer (Bulletin de la Societe des Anciens Textes, 1878, pp. 104-145), and by F. W. D. Brie (Geschichte and Quellen der mittelenglischen Prosa chronik, The Brute of England or The Chronicles of England, Marburg, 1905).
Finally we .may mention, as ancient history, the translation of Eutropius and Dares, by Geoffrey of Waterford (13th century), who gave also the Secret des Secrets, a translation from a work wrongly attributed to Aristotle (Rom. xxiii. 314)• Satire and Drama.—The popularity enjoyed by the Roman de Renart and the Anglo-Norman version of the Riote du Monde (Z. f. roan. Phil. viii. 275-289) in England is proof enough that the French spirit of satire was keenly appreciated. The clergy and the fair sex presented the most attractive target for the shots of the satirists. However, an Englishman raised his voice in favour of the ladies in a poem entitled La Bonte des dames (Meyer, Rom. xv. 315-339), and Nicole Bozon, after having represented "Pride" as a feminine being whom he supposes to be the daughter of Lucifer, and after having fiercely attacked the women of his day in the Char d'Orgueil (Rom. xiii. 516), also composed a Bounte des femmes (P. Meyer, op. cit. 33) in which he covers them with praise, commending their courtesy, their humility, their openness and the care with which they bring up their children. A few pieces of political satire show us French and English exchanging amenities on their mutual shortcomings. The Roman des Francais, by Andre de Coutances, was written on the Continent, and can not be quoted as Anglo-Norman although it was composed before 1204 (cf. Gaston Paris : Trois versions rimees de l'evangile de Nicodeme, Soc. Anc. Textes, 1885). It is a very spirited reply to French authors who had attacked the English.
Dramatic literature must have had a considerable influence on the development of the sacred drama in England, but none of the French plays acted in England in the I2th and 13th centuries has been preserved. Adam, which is generally considered to be an Anglo-Norman mystery of the 12th century, was probably writ ten in France at the beginning of the r3th century (Romania xxxii. 637), and the so-called Anglo-Norman Resurrection belongs also to continental French. It is necessary to state that the earli est English moralities seem to have been imitations of the French.
Didactic and hagiographic literature are represented by numer ous works, a complete list of which will be found in Johan Vising's Anglo-Norman Language and Literature.
(L. B.) OIL COMPANY, LTD. This com pany was registered in London in 1909 to work a concession (originally obtained from the Persian Government by William Knox D'Arcy), which runs for 6o years from May 28, 19o1, and gives the exclusive right to drill for, produce, pipe and carry away natural gas, petroleum, asphalt, etc., throughout the Per sian empire, except in the provinces of Azarbaijan, Gilan, Mazan daran, Astrabad and Khurasan, i.e., an area of about 5oo,000 square miles.
After much unsuccessful drilling in the neighbourhood of Qasr i-Shirin and elsewhere, oil was struck in large quantities in the year 1908 at Masjid-i-Sulaiman, about 3om. east of Shuster in the province of Khuzistan (south-west Persia). By 1913 the company was in need of further capital and, as the British Admiralty was then anxious to secure fresh sources of supply for its fuel oil, the Government entered into an agreement ; im portant supply contracts still subsist between the Admiralty and the company.
Through the British Tanker Co., Ltd. the Anglo-Persian Oil Co., Ltd. controls some 8o tank steamers, all built in Great Britain, and having a total carrying capacity of over 700,000 tons; and through subsidiary companies it operates refineries in South Wales, Scotland, and (through associated companies) in France, Australia 4nd Argentina. The greater part of the present crude production is refined at Abadan in Persia. The company's main production is still obtained from Masjid-i-Sulaiman and is conveyed by pipe lines to its refinery at Abadan on the Shatt el-Arab, a distance of 145 miles. A limited production of oil is also obtained by the company at Naft Khana in Iraq. This par ticular oil-field may be found to extend into Persian territory.
The main Persian oil belt, in which oil has been proved in a total area of 3o sq. m., comprises a tract which extends into Iraq and there appears to be a fundamental geological concor dance throughout the whole belt. The production of oil from the Persian field for the years ending March 19 21-2 7 was as fol lows: (tons) 3,714,216, 4,333,933, 4,806,667—all obtained from large flowing wells, others being held in reserve to meet the constant expansion of the com pany's trade.
Of the yearly net profits 16% is payable to the Persian Gov ernment, who have received on this account the following sums: Year ended Year ended March £ March f 1921 . . . . 585,290 1925 . . . . 824,086 1922 . . 1926 . . . . 1,048,135 1923 . . . . . • • 377,575 The company employs in Persia 26,00o persons, most of whom are Persians.
See Comm. Paper 7419 of 1914 ; also Winston Churchill, The World Crisis, vol. i., 1923. (J. C.) ANGLO-SAXON CHRONICLE. It is usual to speak of "the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"; it would be more correct to say that there are four Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. It is true that these all grow out of a common stock, that in some even of their later entries two or more of them use common materials ; but the same may be said of several groups of mediaeval chronicles, which no one dreams of treating as single chronicles. Of this fourfold Chronicle there are seven mss. in existence: C.C.C. Cant. 173 (A) ; Cott. Tib. A vi. (B) ; Cott. Tib. B i. (C) ; Cott. Tib. B iv. (D) ; Bodl. Laud. Misc. 636 (E) ; Cott. Domitian A viii. (F) ; Cott. Otho B xi. (G). Of these G is now a fragment, and it is known to have been a transcript of A, while A. C, D, E have every right to be treated as independent chronicles. The rela tions between the four vary very greatly in different parts, and the neglect of this consideration has led to much error and con fusion. The common stock, out of which all grow, extends to 892. There seems to be no reason to doubt that the idea of a national, as opposed to earlier local chronicles, was inspired by Alfred, who may even have dictated, or at least revised, the entries relating to his own campaigns; while for the earlier parts pre-existing materials, both oral and written, were utilized. The impulse given by Alfred was continued under Edward, and we have what may be called an official continuation of the history of the Danish wars, which, in B, C, D extends to 915, and in A to 924. After 915 B, C insert as a separate document a short register of Mercian affairs during the same period (902-924), which might be called the acts of Aethelflaed, the famous "Lady of the Mercians," while D has incorporated it, not very skilfully, with the official continuation. From 925 to 975 all the chronicles are very fragmentary; a few obits, three or four poems, among them the famous ballad on the battle of Brunanburh, make up the meagre tale of their common materials. From 983 to 1018 C, D and E are practically identical, and give a connected history of the Danish struggles under Aethelred II. This section was probably composed at Canterbury. From 1018 the relations of C, D, E become too complicated to be expressed by any formula; some times all three agree together, sometimes all three are independ ent ; in other places each pair in turn agree against the third. It may be noted that C is strongly anti-Godwinist, while E is equally pro-Godwinist, D occupying an intermediate position. C extends to io66, where it ends abruptly, and is probably muti lated. D ends at 1079 and is certainly mutilated. In its later history D is associated with some place in the diocese of Wor cester, probably Evesham. In its present form D is a compara tively late ms., none of it probably much earlier, and some of it later, than I I00. In the case of entries in the earlier part of the chronicles, which are peculiar to D, we cannot exclude the possibility that they may be late interpolations. E is continued to 1154. In its present form it is unquestionably a Peterborough book. The earlier part is full of Peterborough interpolations, to which place many of the later entries also refer. But (apart from the interpolations) it is only the entries after I121, where the first hand in the ms. ends, which were actually composed at Peterborough. The section 1023-67 certainly, and possibly also the section 1068-1 I 21, was composed at St. Augustine's, Canter bury; and the former is of extreme interest and value, the writer being in close contact with the events which he describes. The later parts of E show a great degeneration in language, and a querulous tone due to the sufferings of the native population under the harsh Norman rule.
above account is based on the introduction in vol. ii. of the Rev. C. Plummer's edition of Two of the Saxon Chronicles Parallel (1892, 1899) ; to which the student may be referred for detailed arguments. The editio princeps of the Anglo Saxon Chronicle was by Abraham Wheloc • 1861 appeared Benjamin Thorpe's six-text edition in the Rolls Series. Though not free from defects, this edition is absolutely indispensable. A second volume contains the translation. The best translation is that by the Rev. Joseph Stevenson, in his series of Church Historians of England (1853) . An Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, edited by E. Classen and F. E. Harmer (1926) is a useful reprint of D with emendations and notes.
In these codes the paragraphs devoted to criminal law and pro cedure far outnumber those concerned with matters of private law and civil procedure. A very large number of the criminal law clauses are concerned with tariffs of fines, while a considerably smaller number deal with punishments, such as outlawry, confis cation of property, mutilation and death. Private law is concerned mainly with contracts (including marriage) and matters connected with property. Questions of public law and administration (con cerned chiefly with the power and privileges of the king, with police regulations and, to a much less extent, with local adminis tration and purely economic and fiscal matters) are frequently discussed. Clauses which concern the Church (in collections not purely ecclesiastical) appear time and again, most commonly in the form of general precepts based on religious and moral consid erations. A certain number, however, relate to secular privileges conferred on the Church and to matters of organization.
A consideration of chronological sequence in the elaboration of the laws reveals interesting results. The code of Aethelbert is almost entirely a list of fines or "compositions" for various crimes, and similar lists figure largely in the laws of Hlothhere and Eadric, Ine and Alfred. In the codes of Edward the Elder and his succes sors, however, lists of fines for criminal offences are much less prominent, and gradually a new penal system is evolved, based on outlawry, confiscation, capital and corporal punishment.
Fines and compensations throughout the laws are carefully graded, in accordance with the social standing of the persons con cerned. In early times it would appear that the different classes of society were more sharply distinguished than they were later. From the time of Aethelstan onwards the distinction between the thegn or twelf hynde man (i.e., the man with a wergeld of 1,200 shillings) and the ceorl or twihynde man (i.e., the man with a wer geld of 200 shillings) is the chief dividing line between the classes of society. In the arrangements of the commonwealth the clauses treating of royal privileges are more or less evenly distributed over all reigns, but the systematic development of police functions, especially in regard to responsibility for crimes, the catching of thieves, the suppression of lawlessness, is mainly the object of and 11th century legislation. The reign of Aethelred, which witnessed the greatest national humiliation in English history, is also marked by the most lavish expressions of religious feeling and the most frequent appeals to morality. Such an analysis of the Old English laws is by no means complete, but will convey some idea of the trend of State legislation during the period.
The direct influence of Roman law was not great during the Saxon period: we notice neither the transmission of important doctrines, nor the continuous stream of tradition in local usage. But indirectly Roman law did exert a by no means insignificant influence through the medium of the Church, which for all its insular character, was still permeated with Roman ideas and forms of culture. The Old English "books" are derived in a roundabout way from Roman models, and the tribal law of real property was deeply modified by the introduction of individual istic notions as to ownership, donations, wills, rights of women, etc. Yet here also the Norman Conquest increased the store of Roman conceptions by breaking the isolation of the English Church and opening the way for closer intercourse with France and Italy.
The more ancient documents of Anglo-Saxon law show us the individual not merely as the subject and citizen of a certain com monwealth, but also as a member of some group, all the fellows of which are closely allied in claims and responsibilities. The most elementary of these groups is the maegtli, the association of agnatic and cognatic relations. Personal protection and revenge, oaths, marriage, wardship, succession, supervision over settlement and good behaviour, are regulated by the law of kinship. A man's actions are considered not as exertions of his individual will, but as acts of the kindred, and all the fellows of the rnaegt/i are held responsible for them. What began as a natural alliance was used later as a means of enforcing responsibility and keeping lawless individuals in order. When the association of kinsmen failed (and it seems to have done so at an early period in England), the voluntary associations—gilds—appeared as substitutes. The gild brothers associated in mutual defence and support, and they had to share in the payment of fines. The township and the hun dred came in also for certain forms of collective responsibility. In course of time the natural associations get loosened and in termixed, and this calls forth the elaborate police legislation of the later Anglo-Saxon kings. Regulations are issued about the sale of cattle in the presence of witnesses. Enactments about the pur suit of thieves, and the calling in of warrantors to justify sales of chattels, are other expressions of the difficulties attending peaceful intercourse. Personal surety appears as a complement of and substitute for collective responsibility. The hla f ord and his Iziredmen are an institution not only of private patronage, but also of police supervision for the sake of laying hands on malefactors and suspected persons. The landrica assumes the same part in a territorial district. Ultimately the laws of the Loth and nth centuries show the beginnings of the frankpledge associations, which came to act so important a part in the feudal age.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Texts:-Domesday Book i., ii. (Records Comm. Bibliography.-Texts:-Domesday Book i., ii. (Records Comm. 1833) ; Codex Diplomaticus Aevi Saxonici i.–vi. ed. J. M. Kemble (1839-48) ; R. Schmid, Gesetze der Angelsachsen (2nd ed., Leipzig, i858), with good glossary ; B. Thorpe, Diplomatarium Anglicum; Facsimiles of Ancient Charters, with trans. (1863) ; A. W. Haddan and W. Stubbs, Councils of Great Britain I.–III. (1869-78) ; Cartu larium Saxonicum (up to 940) ed. W. de Gray Birch J. Earle, Land Charters (i888) ; F. Liebermann, Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen (1903, 1906), extremely useful with trans. and notes. Studies:—Sir F. Palgrave, Rise and progress the English Com monwealth (2 pt., 1832) ; H. Marquardsen, fi ber Haft and Burg schaft bei den Angelsachsen (1852) ; K. Maurer, Ober Angelsachsische . . . Rechtsverhaltnisse, in Kritische Uberschau der Deutschen Gesetz gebung i., ii., iii. (Munich, ; W. Stubbs, Constit. Hist. of England, vol. i. (1866) ; H. Adams, H. C. Lodge, J. L. Laughlin and E. Young, Essays on Anglo-Saxon Law (1876) ; J. M. Kemble, Saxons in England (rev., 1876) ; I. Jastrow, "Zur Strafrechtlichen Stellung der Sklaven," in O. F. Gierke's Untersuchungen, i. (1878) ; H. Brunner, Zur .Rechtsgeschichte der romisch-germanischen Urkunde (188o) ; J . C. H. R. Steenstrup, Normannerne, iv. (1882) ; Sir F. Pollock, "The King's Peace" in Oxford Lectures (189o) ; P. Vinogradoff, "Folk land" in the Eng. Hist. Rev. (1893) ; Sir F. Pollock and A. W. Mait land, Hist. of Eng. Law (1898) ; F. Seebohm, Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (1902) and The English Village Community (new ed., 1926) ; H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (1905) ; F. W. Maitland, Domesday and Beyond (1907) ; P. Vino gradoff, "Romantische Einfliisse im Angelsachsischen Recht: Das Buch land," in H. H. Fitting, Mélanges, and "The Transfer of Land in Old English Law," in Harvard Law Review (19o7) ; F. L. Atten borough, Laws of the Earliest English Kings (1922); A. J. Robertson, Laws of the Kings of England from Edmund to Henry I. (1925).
(P. VI.; A. J. R.)