ALVA or ALBA, FERNANDO ALVAREZ DE TOLEDO, DUKE OF (1508-83), Spanish soldier, was descended from one of the most illustrious families in Spain. Selected for a military command by Charles V., he took part in the siege of Tunis (1535), and successfully defended Perpignan against the dauphin of France. He was present at the battle of Muhlberg and the victory gained there over John of Saxony was due mainly to his exertions. He took part in the subsequent siege of Witten berg, and presided at the court-martial which tried the elector and condemned him to death. In 1552 Alva was entrusted with the command of the army intended to invade France, and was engaged for several months in an unsuccessful siege of Metz. He was then made commander-in-chief of all the emperor's forces in Italy. Success did not, however, attend his first attempts, and after sev eral unfortunate attacks he was obliged to retire into winter quarters. After Charles's abdication he was continued in com mand by Philip II. Alva had subdued the whole Campagna, and was at the gates of Rome, when he was compelled by Philip's orders to negotiate a peace. One of its terms was that the duke of Alva should in person ask forgiveness of the haughty pontiff whom he had conquered. Proud as the duke was by nature, and accustomed to treat with persons of the highest dignity, he con fessed his voice failed him at the interview, and his presence of mind forsook him. Not long after this (15J9) he was sent at the head of a splendid embassy to Paris to espouse, in the name of his master, Elizabeth, daughter of Henry, king of France.
In 1567 Philip sent Alva to the Netherlands to repress Protes tantism there. Alva made the long march from Genoa at the head of a perfectly disciplined army of about 10,000 men. When he presented his credentials as captain-general of the Netherlands at Brussels it was clear that there remained to the regent, Margaret, Duchess of Parma, a mere shadow of power. Before the end of the year she resigned, and Alva succeeded her as governor-general and regent.
Alva's first care was to lure into his power Counts Egmont and Horn, two of the leaders of the malcontent nobles. They were seized and imprisoned, and in the next year brought to the block (June 2 1568). The new governor erected a tribunal, known offi cially as the "Council of Troubles," but popularly called the "Council of Blood." Alva himself presided, and reserved the de cisions to himself. Of the seven Netherlanders who were members, five resigned after the nature of the operations of the court became clear. From the first the business was in the hands of Alva and two Spaniards, one of whom, Juan de Vargas, received the evidence collected from all over the country against heretics and malcon tents. It was at the hands of the Council of Blood that Egmont and Horn received their sentence.
William of Orange, summoned before the Council, refused to acknowledge its competence, and left the country to raise troops to meet force with force. But the army of mercenaries which crossed the frontier under Louis of Nassau was destroyed by Alva without difficulty at Jemmingen (July 21 1568). Another army, led by William himself into Brabant, was foiled, and Wil liam withdrew and disbanded the force. By the failure of these two attempts Alva's position was made secure, and he was able to devote himself entirely to the crushing of the liberties of the towns and the destruction of heretics. In the terror which followed Alva himself boasted that 18,000 persons were executed, in addition to the numbers killed in battle or massacred after victory.
Alva made a serious blunder when, in desperate straits for money, he attempted in 1569 to levy a property tax and a io% turnover tax on all sales, for by this measure he united Catholics and Protestants against him. The exiles from the Low Countries encouraged by the general opposition, fitted out a fleet of priva teers, which harried the coast towns and seized Spanish ships at sea. On April 1, 1572 the "Sea-beggars" seized Utrecht. They captured Brielle and Flushing, and within a short time four of the northern provinces had declared for the Prince of Orange. Alva's preparations to oppose the gathering storm were made with his usual vigour, and he reduced Mons and Malines while his son Frederick, prior of Toledo, took Zutphen. The towns were sacked and the inhabitants maltreated, Catholic and Protestant alike. With the exception of Zealand and Holland, he regained all the provinces ; and at last his son stormed Naarden, and, massacring its inhabitants, proceeded to invest the city of Haarlem, which, after standing an obstinate siege, was taken and pillaged ( July i i, Their next attack was upon Alkmaar, but the 2,000 burghers repulsed the 16,000 Spanish veterans sent against them with great loss, and Frederick was constrained reluctantly to retire. Alva's feeble state of health and continued disasters induced him to solicit his recall from the government of the Low Countries; a course which was not displeasing to Philip, who was now resolved to make trial of a milder administration. In Dec. 1573 Alva re turned to Spain.
On his return he was treated for some time with great distinction by Philip. But he had many enemies, among them Philip's secre tary, Antonio Perez. He was banished from court, and confined in the castle of Uzeda. Here he had remained two years, when the success of Don Antonio in assuming the crown of Portugal deter mined Philip to recall Alva. In 1581 he entered Portugal, defeated Antonio, drove him from the kingdom, and soon reduced the whole under the subjection of Philip.
Entering Lisbon, he seized an immense treasure, and suffered his soldiers, with their accustomed violence and rapacity, to sack the suburbs and vicinity. It is reported that Alva, being requested to give an account of the money expended on that occasion, sternly replied, "If the king asks me for an account, I will make him a statement of kingdoms preserved or conquered, of signal victories, of successful sieges and of 6o years' service." Alva died in Jan. 1583 at the age of 74.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See the Life, by Rustant (Madrid, 1751). His Bibliography.—See the Life, by Rustant (Madrid, 1751). His correspondence during his Flemish government has been published by M. Gachard (Brussels, 185o). See also Coleccion de documentos ineditos pars la historia de Espana, vols. iv., vii., xiv., xxxii. and xxxv. (Madrid) ; and Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic (1856).