The Emperor Menelek Ii

THE EMPEROR MENELEK II.

Early Struggles as King of Shoa.

Itis now time to return to the story of the young prince Menelek, who, as we have seen, had been.nominated by his late father as ruler of Shoa, but was in Theodore's power in Tigre. In 1865, he took advantage of Theodore's difficulties with the British government and escaped to Workitu, queen of the Wollo Galla country. The emperor, 'He was subsequently sent to school at Rugby, but died in his 19th year, on Nov. 14, 1879. He was buried at St. George's Chapel, Wind sor.

who held as hostage a son of Workitu, threatened to kill the boy unless Menelek were given up; but the gallant queen refused, and lost both her son and her throne. The fugitive meanwhile arrived safely in Shoa, and was there acclaimed as negiis. For the next three years Menelek devoted himself to strengthening and disci plining his army, to legislation, to building towns, such as Liche (near Debra-Berhan), Worra Hailu (Wollo Galla country), etc., and to repelling the incursions of the Galla. On the death of Theodore (April 13, i868) many Shoans, including Ras Darge, were released, and Menelek began to feel himself strong enough to undertake offensive operations against the northern princes. But these projects were of little avail, for Kassai of Tigre, had by this time (1872) risen to supreme power in the north. With the help of the rifles and guns presented to him by the British, he had beaten Ras Bareya of Tigre, Wagshum Gobassie of Am hara and Tekla Giorgis of Gondar, and after proclaiming himself negusa nagast under the name of Johannes or John, was now preparing to march on Shoa. Here, however, Menelek was saved from probable destruction through the action of Egypt. This power had, by the advice of Werner Munzinger, then the Swiss governor of Massawa, seized and occupied in 1872 the northern province of Bogos; and, later on, insisted on occupying Hamasen also, for fear Bogos should be attacked. John, after futile pro tests, collected an army, and with the assistance of Ras Walad Michael, hereditary chief of Bogos, advanced against the Egyp tian forces, who were under the command of one Arendrup, a Dane. Meeting near the Mareb, the Egyptians were beaten in detail, and almost annihilated at Gundet (Nov. 13, 1875). An avenging expedition was prepared in the spring of the following year, and, numbering 14,o00 men under Ratib Pasha, Loring (American), and Prince Hassan, advanced to Gura and fortified a position in the neighbourhood. Although reinforced by Walad Michael, who had now quarrelled with John, the Egyptians were a second time (March 25, 1876) heavily beaten by the Abyssin ians, and retired, losing an enormous quantity of both men and rifles. Colonel C. G. Gordon, governor-general of the Sudan, was now ordered to go and make peace with John, but the king had moved south with his army, intending to punish Menelek for having raided Gondar whilst he, John, was engaged with the Egyp tians. Menelek's kingdom was meanwhile torn in twain by se rious dissensions on the subject of the succession, but on the ap proach of John, the Shoans united for a time against their common enemy. After a few skirmishes, however, they melted away, and Menelek was obliged to submit and do obeisance to John. The latter behaved with much generosity, but at the same time imposed terms which effectually deprived Shoa of her inde pendence (March 1878). In 1879 Gordon was sent on a fresh mission to John on behalf of Egypt ; but he was treated with scant courtesy, and was obliged to leave the country without achieving anything permanent.

Advent of the Italians.

TheItalians now come on the scene. Assab, a port near the southern entrance of the Red Sea, had been bought from the local sultan in March 187o by an Ital ian company, which, after acquiring more land in 1879 and 188o, was bought out by the Italian Government in 1882. In this year Count Pietro Antonelli was despatched to Shoa in order to im prove the prospects of the colony by treaties with Menelek and the sultan of Aussa; but both John and Menelek became uneasy when Beilul, a port to the north of Assab Bay, was occupied by the Italians in Jan. 1885, and Massawa taken over by them from Egypt in the following month. This latter act was greatly re sented by the Abyssinians, for by a treaty concluded with a Brit ish and Egyptian mission under Admiral Hewett and Mason Pasha in the previous year, free transit of goods was to be allowed through this port. In Jan. 1887, the Abyssinians, in consequence of a refusai from General Gene to withdraw his troops, sur rounded and attacked a detachment of 500 Italian troops at Dogali, killing more than 400 of them Reinforcements were sent from Italy, whilst in the autumn the British Government stepped in and tried to mediate by means of a mission under Mr. (after wards Sir Gerald) Portal. His mission, however, proved abortive, and after many difficulties and dangers he returned to Egypt at the end of the year. John was killed in battle against the der vishes in March 1889, when Menelek immediately claimed the Empire of Abyssinia. The new emperor brought Abyssinia for the first time under a single rule, doubled the size of the Empire by extensive conquests, and began development on European lines. The Italian envoy Count Antonelli was with Menelek when he claimed the throne, and promptly concluded with him (May 2, 1889) on behalf of Italy a friendly treaty, to be known hereafter as the famous Uccialli treaty. On consequence of this the Italians occupied Asmara, made friends with Mangasha, reputed son and heir of King John, and received Ras Makonnen (Ras of Harar, which province had been conquered by Menelek in Jan. 1887), Menelek's nephew, as his plenipotentiary in Italy ; thus it seemed as though hostilities between the two countries had come to a definite end. As, however, the Italians became more and more friendly with Mangasha and Tigre the apprehensions of Menelek increased, till at last, in Feb. 1893, he wrote denouncing the Ucci alli treaty, which differed in the Italian and Amharic versions. Ac cording to the former, the negus was bound to make use of Italy as a channel for communicating with other powers, whereas the Amharic version left it optional. Meanwhile the dervishes were threatening Eritrea. A fine action by Colonel Arimondi gained Agordat for Italy (Dec. 21, 1893),and a brilliant march by Colonel Baratieri resulted in the acquisition of Kassala (July 17, 1894).

War with Italy.

On his return Baratieri found that Manga sha was intriguing with the dervishes, and had actually crossed the frontier with a large army. At Koatit and Senafe (Jan. 13-15, 1895) Mangasha was met and heavily defeated by Baratieri, who occupied Adigrat in March. But as the year wore on the Italian commander pushed his forces unsupported too far to the south. Menelek was advancing with a large army in national support of Mangasha, and the subsequent reverses at Amba Alagai (Dec. 7, 1895) and Makale (Jan. 21, 1896) forced the Italians to fall back.

Reinforcements of many thousands were meanwhile arriving at Massawa, and in Feb. 1896 Baratieri took the field at the head of over 13,000 men. Menelek's army, amounting to about 90,000, had during this time advanced, and was occupying a strong position at Abba Garima, near Aduwa (or Adowa). Here Baratieri attacked him on March I, but the difficulties of the country were great, and one of the four Italian brigades had pushed too far forward. This brigade was attacked by overwhelming numbers, and on the re maining brigades advancing in support, they were successively cut to pieces by the encircling masses of the enemy. The Italians lost 4,600 white and nearly 3,00o native troops killed and wounded; the number of prisoners was estimated at between 2,500 and 3,000. The Abyssinians' casualties were far greater. General Baldassera advanced with a large body of reinforcements to avenge this de feat, but, beyond the peaceful relief of Adigrat no further opera tions took place. On Oct. 26 following, a provisional treaty of peace was concluded at Addis Ababa, annulling the treaty of Uccialli and recognizing the absolute independence of Abyssinia. (See ITALY, History, and SOMALILAND, Italian.) Consolidation and Extension of the Empire.—The war, so disastrous to Italy, attracted the attention of all Europe to Abys sinia and its monarch, and numerous missions, two Russian, three French, and one British, were despatched to the country, and hospitably received by Menelek. The British one, under Mr. Ren nell Rodd (later Lord Rennell), concluded a friendly treaty with Abyssinia (May 15, 1897).

In 1898 Menelek subdued Mangasha and 'later conducted a number of expeditions in different parts of the country, notably against the Galla, and added immense provinces to the empire. An important treaty was concluded on May 15, 1902, between Eng land and Abyssinia for the delimitation of the Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Menelek, in addition, agreed not to obstruct the waters of Lake Tana, the Blue Nile or the Sobat, so as not to interfere with Nile irrigation. A combined British-Abyssinian expedition (Mr. A. E. Butter's) was despatched in 1901 to propose and survey a boundary between Abyssinia on the one side and British East Africa and Uganda on the other; and the report of the expedition was made public by the British Government in Nov. 1904. It was followed in 1908 by an agreement defining the frontiers concerned.

It is also an interesting fact that between 1899 and 1904 the Abyssinians co-operated with the British in their campaigns against the "Mad Mullah" of Somaliland by sending joint expedi tions on no less than four occasions.

Growth of European Influence.

The first concession for a railway was the one from the coast at Jibuti (French Somaliland) to the interior, granted by Menelek to a French company in Difficulties arose over the continuation of the railway to Addis Ababa and beyond, and the proposed internationalization of the line. These difficulties, which hindered the work of construction for years, were composed (so far as the European Powers inter ested were concerned) in 1906 by the terms of an Anglo-French Italian agreement, signed in London on Dec. 13 of that year.

Meanwhile the country slowly developed in parts and opened out cautiously to European influences and most of the Powers appointed representatives at Menelek's capital, the British minister-plenipotentiary and consul-general, Lieut.-Colonel Sir J. L. Harrington, having been appointed shortly after the British mission in 1897. But Ras Makonnen, the most capable and civi lized of Menelek's probable successors, died in March 1906, and Mangasha died later in the same year; the question of the suc cession therefore opened up the possibility that, in spite of recent civilizing influences, Abyssinia might still relapse in the future into its old state of conflict. The Anglo-French-Italian agreement of Dec. 1906, referred to above, contained provisions in view of this contingency. The preamble of the document declared that it was the common interest of the three Powers "to maintain intact the integrity of Ethiopia," and Article I. provided for their co-operation in maintaining "the political and territorial status quo in Ethiopia." Should, however, the status quo be disturbed, the Powers were to concert to safe guard their special interests. The terms of the agreement were settled in July 1906, and its text forthwith communicated to the (E. GL.; C. F. R.) From 1908 to the War with Italy.—For the first 8 of these years (1908-1916) chaos reigned, i. e., during the regency of Menelek's widow Taitu and Ras Tessama, and the rule of the Em peror Lej Yasu ; during the next 12 years, 1916-1928—the period of combined rule of Menelek's daughter Zauditu as Empress with Ras Tafari (later the Emperor Haile Selassie) as Regent—matters improved to some extent in spite of constant intrigue between the progressive party, supporting the Regent, and the reactionary ele ments led by the Empress; during the last 8 years Tafari, first of all as King (1928-1930), later as Emperor (193o-1936), had be gun to introduce a measure of reform and progress into his back ward and unruly empire.

First Period-1908-1916.

Menelek had in 1908 nominated as his successor Lej Yasu (born 1896) under the regency of one of the more enlightened Abyssinian chieftains, Ras Tessama. But the constant strife between Menelek's wife Taitu, the Regent, and the boy Emperor, made ordered government impossible. The enforced retirement of Taitu in 1910, the death of Tessama in 1911, and the complete assumption of power in that year by Yasu, merely drove matters from bad to worse.

By his misgovernment, his tyrannical and dissolute conduct, and particularly by his inclination to Islam, Lej Yasu mortally affronted his own subjects, intensely proud as they were and are of their 15 centuries of Christian tradition. His support of the "Mad Mullah" of Somaliland, who claimed him as a cousin, and his efforts to build up a federation of Muslim states, anti-ally in its sentiments, also estranged the sympathies of the three great Powers with possessions bordering on Abyssinia. In September, 1916, he was excommunicated by the Abuna, the head of the Abys sinian Church. The great Rases, thus relieved of their oath of fealty, formally deposed him, and proclaimed Zauditu, a daughter of the Emperor Menelek, born in 1876, as Empress, and Dajaz mach Tafari, born July 17, 1891, son of Menelek's nephew, Ras Makonnen, as Regent of the empire, heir to the throne and Ras of Rases. Heavy fighting followed. Lej Yasu's father, Ras Mikael of Wollo Galla, raised large Galla forces to aid his son, but tne troops of the deposed ruler were defeated with great slaughter at Sagalle on October 27, 1916. Ras Mikael was taken prisoner, and Lej Yasu became a wanderer, first of all in the Danakil country and later in the province of Tigre. He was taken prisoner by Tafari in 1921, and kept in chains until his death in 1935.

Second Period-1916-1928.

The dual nature of the adminis tration of Empress and Regent stimulated intrigue among the powerful Rases and provincial governors, who had fallen back into a state of semi-independence during the preceding years of mis rule, and made effective control difficult to exercise. In spite of this, however, and of sporadic fighting with Lej Yasu's followers, Ras Tafari made substantial progress in administrative improve ment ; he was, however, hampered by a thoroughly bad and in effective, though onerous, financial system, and an entire absence of men of integrity and ability to support and execute his ideas.

His distrust of the intentions of the great European limitrophe powers—England, France, and Italy—made him slow to grant concessions to or to accept financial or advisory assistance from nationals of these powers, and this further hindered development. It was largely on account of this distrust of his neighbours that Ras Tafari strove for the admission of Abyssinia to the League of Nations, which he achieved in 1923. This step was criticized as being premature in view of the backward state of development of the country, and was, in fact, opposed at first by the British representatives but ultimately approved, largely owing to the strong support accorded by the French.

Feeling more secure both internally and externally, as a result of the League membership, Ras Tafari felt able to leave Abys sinia and visit the principal European countries in 1924. Shortly afterwards he appealed to the League against the Anglo-Italian agreement regarding spheres of influence in Abyssinia, concluded in December 1925, which he regarded as a violation of Abyssinian rights. A visit of the Duke of Abruzzi to Addis Ababa in 1927 was followed by the signature during the following year of an Italo-Abyssinian arbitration treaty of "perpetual friendship," and of a further agreement between the two countries providing for the cession to Abyssinia of the port of Assab, and for the con struction of a road thence to the capital. This instrument, how ever, was neither published nor implemented.

Meanwhile, on November 7, 1928, Tafari caused himself to be proclaimed King with all power in his hands, leaving Zauditu to retain a nominal position as Empress. On April 3, 193o, Zauditu died, and on November 2 of that year Tafari was crowned Em peror.

Third Period-1928-1936.

From the moment when Ras Ta fari assumed full power in 1928 he worked unceasingly and with a greater measure of success than before for the development of Abyssinia. Progress was, however, slow in view of the factors already described, which still existed albeit to a lesser extent. Such administrative reforms as were introduced, e.g., the estab lishment of ministries, and the creation of a "Parliament," were more theoretical than real, and had little actual effect, all power remaining, in fact, in the hands of the Emperor, who however, added to his effective control of the country by removing the last of the hereditary provincial governors, Ras Hailu of Gojam, who led a rebellion against him in 1932 in favour of the deposed Em peror Lej Yasu. Minor reforms in the way of educational insti tutions, road construction, etc., were carried out; but the financial system remained practically untouched.

Strengthened in his belief that the external position of Abys sinia was safeguarded by membership in the League of Nations, the Emperor manifested little inclination to meet the views of Italy, which country was pressing for development on the lines of the Anglo-Italian Agreement of 1925 and otherwise, and was engaged in ever increasing activity in Eritrea, Italian Somaliland and along the Red Sea generally.

The Italo-Abyssinia War-1935-1936.

Wal Wal, an ob scure village near the ill-defined Abyssinian Italian Somaliland frontier, although placed in Abyssinia by most maps, had been occupied by Italian troops for several years without protest from Abyssinia. An Anglo-Abyssinian frontier delimitation commis sion, escorted by a force of Abyssinian troops, arrived there on November 23, 1934, and came into touch with the Italians, owing to whose attitude the British mission withdrew. Italian and Abys sinian troops remained facing each other at Wal Wal until on December 5, 1934, firing took place; nine months later, in Sept. 1935, the arbitrators appointed by the League of Nations, agreed unanimously that neither side was guilty of aggression.

As the gravity of the issues likely to be raised by this incident became apparent, strenuous efforts to maintain peace were made by various countries, notably by England, both directly and through the machinery of the League of Nations. In Dec. Abyssinia had notified the League of Nations of the Wal Wal in cident, and had appealed for League intervention under Article XI. of the Covenant in Jan. 1935. In that month the two countries ostensibly agreed to seek a settlement ; but, no agreement having been reached by March, Abyssinia invoked Article XV., and later demanded arbitration under the Treaty with Italy of 1928.

A conference between England, France and Italy was held in Paris on August 15 to 18 but they failed to find any basis of agreement. A Committee of five, appointed by the League of Na tions on Sept. 6 to formulate proposals, reported on the 18th; Abyssinia agreed to open negotiations on the basis of these pro posals but Italy refused them. Then, when war broke out on October 3, the League condemned Italy as the aggressor, and pro ceeded to elaborate in October, and put in force on November 18, 1935, a scheme of financial and economic "sanctions" against Italy.

Bitter feeling was aroused in Italy by these measures, and the international aspect of the situation was rendered more delicate owing to the despatch by Italy in September of large reinforce ments to Libya; which was followed by the sending to Egypt by England of considerable numbers of troops and much war mate rial, and the strengthening of the British fleet in the Mediter ranean.

On November 6, the League committee of eighteen had adopted a resolution in favour of oil, steel and coal sanctions, and on November 25 this was supported by Rumania and Russia. But on December 13, the committee adjourned further consideration of the proposed oil sanction, which in fact was never imposed. No country appeared to be willing to consider the imposition of mili tary sanctions.

Proposals for a peace settlement on the basis of certain terri torial cessions by Abyssinia to Italy were formulated between Sir Samuel Hoare, British foreign secretary, and M. Laval, represent ing France, on December 8; submitted to Abyssinia on the loth; and published on December 13. These had been approved by the British government, which, however, abandoned them on Decem ber 18 in view of the strong adverse public opinion in England.

On March 3, 1936 the League committee of thirteen issued an appeal to both belligerents to cease hostilities. This, however, was unavailing, and on April 20 the League Council adjourned un til May 11, by which time the War was over. At the session held during the week commencing June 29 (which was addressed by the Emperor Haile Selassie in person) the League decided to rec ommend the raising of the sanctions which had-been imposed on Italy as these had failed to achieve their purpose, but refused to recognize the Italian occupation of Abyssinia. Sanctions were, in fact, raised in July. Since then several of the Powers previously represented in Abyssinia by legations have replaced them by con sulates, thus tacitly admitting the change in status, although no general or specific recognition of Italy's possession has been given.

Military Operations.

During the period of negotiations, Italy utilized the 9 months until the Abyssinian rains ceased (January to September) in equipping and transporting from Italy and recruiting in Eritrea and Somaliland a large army, well sup plied with every modern form of mechanical armament and trans port ; together with an immense body of workmen for the purpose of constructing lines of communication.

Abyssinian troops gathered both in the north and the south, although general mobilization was not ordered until Italian troops had crossed the Eritrean frontier into Tigre. This occurred on October 3, in spite of the fact that there had been no official declaration of war.

Operations were undertaken by the Italians on two main fronts, from Eritrea in the north and from Italian Somaliland in the south. General de Bono had been appointed high commissioner and commander-in-chief for East Africa as early as Jan. Io, 1935; and Graziani commander-in-chief in Italian Somaliland, March 7.

Northern Campaign.

After crossing the frontier on October 3, General de Bono occupied Adigrat on October 4, Aduwa (the scene of the Italian defeat in 1896) on the 6th, and Aksum (the Holy City of Abyssinia) on the 15th; but it was not until Novem ber 8 that Makale was taken. General de Bono was succeeded by General Badoglio on November 28. On December 2 Ras Kassa, the Emperor's cousin and loyal adherent, was defeated near Makale ; on the 6th, Italian planes bombed Dessye, the Abyssinian general headquarters. Abbi Addi was taken on December 6; on December 23 the Italians were successful in heavy fighting in Tembien. Then after a pause, followed the crushing defeats of Ras Mulugeta, the Abyssinian commander-in-chief at Enderta on February 16; of the two next most important armies under Ras Kassa and Ras Seyum in Southern Tembien ; and the capture of Ambi Alagi on February 28 to March 2 ; and a month later the final and decisive defeat of the Emperor's army near Lake Ashangi, April 1, 1936.

There was no more serious fighting in the North; Dessye was occupied on April 15; and, consolidating his communications as he proceeded, General Badoglio entered Addis Ababa, May 5, 1936. The Emperor had fled on the night of May 1, and during the three days that followed, disgraceful scenes of looting, arson, and murder took place in Addis Ababa. Had it not been for the foresight, resource and courage of the British Minister, Sir Sidney Barton, and the staff and garrison of the British legation, it is probable that hundreds of Europeans would have lost their lives.

Southern Campaign.

General Graziani had meanwhile ex perienced serious difficulties in the south. An advance had been made as far as Gorahai (which had been occupied on November 5), but for various reasons, including an advance by the Abys sinians in the extreme south which menaced the Italian line of communications, they withdrew their forces. Transport difficul ties were great; mechanical transport being impeded by heavy rains, and animal transport by an epidemic which destroyed many thousands of mules. A renewed offensive was, however, launched on January 12, and two days later Ras Desta, the Abyssinian commander-in-chief in the south was defeated near Dolo and driven back. Heavy fighting followed in this district but it was not until April 20 that the heavily fortified lines of the Abyssini ans were taken; Sasa Baneh was occupied on April 29; Harar, the principal town in southern Abyssinia, and Diredawa, the main town on the railway between Addis Ababa and the coast, on May 8 and 9, respectively.

Other Operations.

While the main campaigns were thus pro ceeding, other operations were also in progress with a view to the occupation of portions of the country not covered by the principal lines of advance. Thus mechanized columns had penetrated in a south westerly direction from Eritrea, occupying Gondar, one of the old capitals of Abyssinia, on April 2, and Lake Tana on the I2th; other columns advancing along the Sudan border occupied Gallabat on April 14, and extended their occupation southwards. Moyale, and other south western districts, were occupied towards the end of June. Yet another column advancing across the Dana kil Desert from Assab occupied Sardo in the Aussa district.

Results of the Campaign.

Shortly after Marshal Badoglio had entered Addis Ababa Italy proclaimed Abyssinia an integral portion of the Italian Empire; King Victor Emmanuel was pro claimed Emperor of Abyssinia; and Marshal Badoglio Viceroy of Abyssinia. General Graziani was created a Marshal, and within a few weeks succeeded Marshal Badoglio as Viceroy of Abyssinia on the latter's return to Italy where he was given a triumphal re ception. The Italians set themselves to work to pacify, organize and develop the country with much energy. An economic com mission was sent out to report on its resources, mineral and com mercial; roads were planned ; a new judicial system inaugurated; and ambitious programmes announced in many directions. But al though victory thus appeared to be complete, fighting with raiding bands of Abyssinians continued after the war was concluded, and in September 1936, attacks were being made on Addis Ababa.

Reasons of Italian Success.

From a military point of view, probably the most potent factor was the realization by the Italians that their main enemy was the country itself. They therefore em ployed tens of thousands of men on road construction, and pro vided an immense fleet of motor transport. They made the fullest possible use of mechanized war material, and their huge fleet of aeroplanes and very large numbers of tanks proved of the utmost value. In this they possessed an immense advantage over the Abyssinians who were equipped with little beyond rifles and most of these of non-modern pattern. Of equal importance was the ex tremely efficient secret service of the Italians, which by means of espionage, propaganda and lavish distribution of money sowed dissension among the Abyssinian chiefs, and kept the Italians fully posted as to every Abyssinian movement. This was the more effective in that the Abyssinians are not a single nation; that various districts in the North, such as Tigre and Gojam, had al ways been antagonistic to the Shoan branch of the Imperial family; and that the Emperor Haile Selassie was very far from popular and was disliked by the church, a powerful institution in Abyssinia. See ITALY; LEAGUE OF NATIONS.

See James Bruce, Travels to discover the source of the Nile (179o) ; A. B. Wylde, Modern Abyssinia (i9oi), a valuable volume; Powell Cotton, A Sporting Trip through Abyssinia (1902) ; Duchesne-Fournet, Mission en Ethiopie (19o9), which contains a useful bibliography ; G. Montandon, Au pays Ghimirra (Neuchatel, 1913) ; C. Annatarone, In Abissinia (1914) ; L. de Castro, Nella Terra dei Negus (1915), a good general description; Major Maydon, Simen, its Heights and Abysses (1925), describing the mountainous northern country; C. F. Rey, Unconquered Abyssinia as it is Today (1923) and In the Country of the Blue Nile (1927), two books embodying a comprehensive study of the country as the result of four journeys therein. Arnold Hodson, Seven Years in Southern Abyssinia (1927), a valuable record of borderland difficulties; C. F. Rey, The Real Abyssinia (1935), a com prehensive description up to war with Italy.

For later geographical information, see the Geographical Journal (London)—H. Weld Blundell, "A Journey through Abyssinia" (vol. xv. 1900) and "Exploration in the Abbai Basin" (vol. xxvii. 5906) ; Arnold Hodson, "Southern Abyssinia" (Feb. 1919) and "Notes on Abyssinian Lakes" (July 1922) ; Major Athill, "Through S.W. Abys sinia to the Nile" (Nov. 192a) ; C. F. Rey, "Abyssinia of To-day" (Sept. 1922) and "A Visit to Gudrn and Gojam" (June 1926).

For History, see the Hakluyt Society's translation of The Portu guese Expedition to Abyssinia (1902) ; Handbook No. 29 prepared by the Historical Section of the Foreign Office (192o) ; Sir E. Hertslet's Map of Africa by Treaty for treaties up to 1896; Sir E. W. Budge, A History of Ethiopia (1928) ; C. F. Rey, The Romance of the Portu guese in Abyssinia (2929).

Political questions are referred to by H. Le Roux, Menelik et nous (19o1) ; Charles Michel, La Question d'Ethiopie (19°5) ; T. Lennox Gilmour, The Ethiopian Railway and the Powers (1906) ; • Pierre Alype, L'Ethiopie et les convoitises allemandes (1917) and L'Empire des Negous (1924) ; G. E. Underhill, in the Quarterly Review (Jan. 1922) ; C. F. Rey, Edinburgh Review (Oct. 1926). (C. F. R.)