Tural Machinery and Implements

TURAL MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS.

Most of the food of the world is produced by a small number of farmers who use machinery. The millions of farmers in Asia, and other countries where machinery is not used, produce a small percentage of the world's food supply. In one region in China,' the farmers had $8.82 worth of machinery per farm compared with $423 in the United States. The value of machinery per farm in creased from $1o8, in 189o, to $423, in 1925 (Table XII.). A relatively small amount of machinery is used in the southern States. The average value of machinery on farms operated by white persons in the east south central States, in 1920, was $2o3, but was $1,o65 in the west north central States (Table XIII.). Coloured farmers use relatively little farm machinery regardless of the section of the country in which they are located. The aver age value of machinery on farms operated by coloured persons was $109, but was $6o5 on farms operated by whites (Table XIII.).

It is not possible to understand agriculture in the Uni_ted States except in terms of machinery. Not long ago ploughing was done with a one-furrow walking-plough. To-day, the most com mon practice is to use a two-furrow plough drawn by horses or by tractors. A large amount of work is done with ploughs that turn three furrows or more. Harrowing, disking and other opera tions in fitting the soil were commonly done with two horses, but to-day four or more horses or the tractor are commonly used. About 5o years ago grain-binders and threshing machines were in common use. The harvester was later developed into the twine binder, which dropped the bundles into piles for shocking. At that time, it was necessary to cut the bands and feed the threshing machine by hand. The grain was measured and lifted into the wagon. The straw was elevated by a carrier and several persons were needed to keep it out of the way. Horses were often used for power. If a steam-engine was used, one man and a horse were required to haul the water. To-day bundles are quite commonly pitched into a pen-rack, so that no loader is required, and then pitched into the self-feeder of the threshing machine. The grain is weighed and delivered into the wagon or truck. The straw blower takes care of the straw. The only hand labour involved in raising a grain crop is in shocking the grain, pitching the grain onto the wagon and from the wagon to the threshing machine. For a number of years, the combined harvester and thresher has been used in the Pacific coast States. When this is used, no hand labour is involved in grain production. Recently, combines are being introduced into all the States and a large percentage of the wheat is handled in this way. The use of the tractor and the com bined harvester is making it possible to farm large areas of semi arid land on which the yields were not high enough to pay before labour-saving methods were introduced. For some time the plant ing of corn has been done with the corn-planter, which rows the corn in both directions, two rows at once. A considerable num ber of farmers are now using two-row cultivators. Most of the husking is still done by hand, but power husking machines are beginning to be used. The ears of corn were formerly shovelled from the wagon to the crib. Many farmers now have elevators to do this work. Power shellers have been in universal use for some -years, but recently have been improved. The only hand labour in raising corn is husking and shovelling the ears into the sheller. Not many years ago, hay was cut with a mowing machine about 4ft. wide, and raked with a horse-rake. It was then pitched 'J. L. Buck, "An Economic and Social Survey of 15o Farms," Yenshan county, Chihli province, China, University of Nanking, Bul. 13, p. 3o, June 1926.

on to the wagon, then to the mow or stack. Most of the hay pro duced is now loaded with a hay-loader or pushed from the field to the stack on a sweep-rake. It is elevated to the stack by horse power. In the eastern States, hay is usually loaded with a hay loader and unloaded with a horse-fork. In either case, the only hand labour is that of making the stack or mowing away the hay. Until recently, potatoes were planted, dug and dusted or sprayed by hand to control the potato beetle. To-day, most of the com mercial crop of potatoes is planted with a potato-planter, dug with machinery and sprayed with a power sprayer. The only hand labour involved is in cutting the seed, picking up the po tatoes and placing them on the wagon or truck. Under some con ditions, digging machines are used to pick up the potatoes. Although the majority of cows in the United States are milked by hand, about one-half of them, in intensive dairy sections, are milked with machines. Records obtained from 422 farms in New York in 1922 showed that 46% of the farmers used milking machines.

Irrigation and Drainage.

Approximatelytwo-fifths of the United States is too dry for crop production unless irrigated or farmed with particular reference to the conservation of moisture. A part of this area is summer-fallowed. By fallowing, enough moisture is conserved so that one crop may be grown every two years. In other regions, crops are planted every year, but with the expectation that many crop failures will occur. The total rainfall in the arid area is sufficient to irrigate only a very small percentage of it. In 1919, the area under irrigation amounted to 19,191,716 acres. The systems available at that time could have irrigated 26,000,000 acres. It is estimated that this is about one-half of the land that it is possible to irrigate. Alfalfa (lucerne) is the predominant crop on irrigated land. Of the total value of the United States crop in 1919, nearly one-half of the alfalfa, practically all of the rice, most of the lemons, over one-half of the oranges and sugar beets, and one-third of the grapes and prunes were produced on irrigated land. The rice crop is grown in humid areas, but is flooded. The other irrigated crops are grown in arid or semi-arid areas.

In 192o, the land in operated drainage enterprises amounted to 65,495,038 acres. This is over three times the irrigated land. The largest areas in the drainage districts are in Ohio, Indiana, Michi gan, Iowa and Minnesota. In the future, more land will continue to be reclaimed by drainage than by irrigation.

Forests.

Originally nearly one-half of the land in the United States was covered with forests. The estimated original quan tity of timber was 5,2oo billion board feet, of which about 2,200 billion board feet remain. The present cutting is about four times the annual rate of growth. The United States now uses nearly one-half of the timber and over one-half of the paper of the world. It is evident that this rate of consumption cannot con tinue unless provision is made for growing the crop more rapidly. The majority of the States now furnish forest trees for planting at a very small charge. Thus far, the acreage planted per year has been very small. In 1926, about 53,000ac. were planted. Farmers planted more than any other agency, followed by the Federal and State Governments. Corporations planted a relatively small per centage of the total. Farmers and other private agencies are the chief owners of forest land, but the area of national, State and municipal forests is increasing.

corn is placed in the silo for winter feed. About 4% of the total crop is cut for silage and 7% is cut for fodder. About 5% of the corn is harvested by turning the hogs into the field.

Thus far, corn has been singularly free from devastating pests. The European corn-borer is now appearing in the eastern edge of the corn belt. As this spreads, it may cause serious reduction in Corn.—Cornis the most important crop in the United States. It is grown by more farmers, occupies more acres and has a greater total value than any other crop. About two-thirds of the farmers grew corn in 1925. No other crop, except hay, was grown by much more than one-third of the farmers. Less than 1 o% the corn crop is used directly for human food. About 4o% is fed to hogs, 15% to cattle, 2o% to horses and 5% to poultry. Corn furnished over one-half of the feed, other than pasture, for live stock. While only a limited amount is used directly for food, corn is indirectly the most important single source of human food in the United States. Although a very large number of farmers grow corn, the chief centre of production is in the strip of land, Zoom. wide and Boom. long, extending from Ohio to Nebraska. This region is known as the corn belt. It produces most of the corn of the world (fig. 5).

After corn is husked, cattle and horses are turned into the fields for pasture. In the dairy regions, a considerable amount of yields. Usually when a serious pest appears, it causes much more loss in the earlier years than later. When the natural enemies of the pest become more numerous and methods of control are better developed, the ravages are less serious.

Cotton.—Cottonis the most important cash crop grown in the United States, second only to corn in total value. Cotton is limited to the southern States. It is grown throughout the South, but there are three centres of intensive production. One area extends across Georgia and the Carolinas, another along the Mississippi river from the northern border of Tennessee to that of Louisi ana. The third intensive area is in Texas and Oklahoma. The centres of intensive production are in the northern and western portions of the cotton belt. This is due in part to the smaller injury from the boll weevil in the regions that have light rainfall or cold winters. Cotton is the most important farm product exported from the United States. About one-half of the crop is exported.

the primary forage crops (fig. 8). Timothy, red and alsike clover make 46% of the hay acreage. Alfalfa furnishes 14% of the hay acreage, but the yields per acre are about twice as high as the average for other hay (fig. 9).

Wheat.—Wheat is the third crop in importance in the United States. There are f our fairly distinct wheat areas. The most im portant one is the hard winter wheat region, of which Kansas is the centre. North of this is the hard spring wheat region. This same geographical area includes most of the wheat of Canada. East of these regions soft winter wheats are grown, although the hard wheats are encroaching on the western edge of the area. Various types of wheat are grown in the mountain and Pacific coast States, but the most important are the soft wheats grown in Oregon and Washington (fig. 6) .

Oats.—Oats are produced in many States, but the greatest production is in the corn belt. In this area they are usually grown after corn, without ploughing the ground. Oats do not give a high return per acre, but require less work (fig. 7).

Hay.—There are three more or less distinct hay areas in the United States. In the western half of the country alfalfa is the major hay crop. East of the alfalfa area and north of the cotton belt, timothy and clover are the major hay crops. South of this area, annual crops, such as cow peas, soy beans and the like, are Potatoes.—Potato production is rapidly being concentrated in certain areas that have sandy soils and a cool climate. Most of the potatoes are grown in the northern tier of States or along the Atlantic coast. Formerly, potatoes were grown in small acreages on heavier soils, but commercial production requires machinery, which works best on light soils. Fertilizers make it possible to obtain large yields of good quality on soils that were not strong enough for continued use before fertilizers were used (fig. 1o).

Grain.

The total grain produced in the United States in creased from 69 billion pounds in 1866 to nearly 294 billion in 1915. Since 192o, the general tendency of production has been downward. The production per capita was highest in the 20 years from 1895 to 1915. Since that time it has been declining. The yields per acre are considerably higher than formerly.

on the range. Many of the beef cattle are grown on the range and fattened in the corn belt (fig. I 1) .

The northern States from Minnesota to Massachusetts are the most important centres of dairy production, but dairy cows for Cattle.—The value of cattle and calves slaughtered represents 3 7 % of the total value of all slaughtered animals. There are two major areas of cattle production : the timothy and clover areas where cattle are produced on pasture and hay, and the southern and western areas, where a greater dependence is placed milk supply are scattered wherever there are people (fig. 12). An abundance of pasture is the chief factor in economical cattle pro duction. Some of the most favoured areas are on the Pacific coast, where good pastures are available most of the year. In most of the United States, conditions are less favourable for dairying than in England, Ireland and Holland, because the pasture season in these countries is longer. The milk production in Denmark aver ages about 6,3oolb. per cow. The production in a number of dairy regions in the United States averages about 5,5oolb. per cow. In many regions of New York State, the production aver ages 5,700. The dairy regions shipping milk to New York city average 6,20o pounds. Comparisons are often made between the United States and Denmark or Holland. If a significant compar ison is to be made with these countries, it must be made with intensive dairy districts in the United States, because in the latter a large percentage of the cows that are milked are beef cattle.

Pure-bred hogs in the United States are predominantly Duroc Jersey and Poland China. The three most important breeds of hogs as well as many of the important breeds of poultry are of American origin, but the important breeds of cattle, sheep and horses are European.

In the eastern half of the United States Shropshire sheep pre dominate. Rambouillet are grown in all parts of the country, but are very numerous on the ranges of the West.

Percheron horses predominate, but there are considerable num bers of Belgian, .Shire and Clydesdale horses.

Hogsare reared on three-fourths of the farms in the United States, but the chief centre of production is in the corn belt. Hogs eat about 4o% of the corn crop. A bushel of corn pro Crop Yields.—Comparisonsof yields of small grains and potatoes in Europe and the United States are often made and erroneous conclusions drawn. This is often assumed to be due to differences in methods of farming. However, they are due pri marily to climate. Most parts of the United States are too hot for duces a little more than i olb. of live hog, or from 7 to 81b. of pork. Pork is produced in the United States in sufficient quantities to supply home demand and forms a chief export (fig. 13).

Pure-bred Live-stock.

In1920, the U.S. census reported 1,981,514 registered pure-bred cattle and 2,049,900 registered hogs in the United States. This is a small percentage of the total pure-bred animals, as many are not registered. The registrations the best yields of small grains and potatoes. The yields of these crops are much below the European, but corn yields are much higher. Europe obtains 5bu. more wheat and oats per acre than the United States, but produces 8bu. less corn (Table XXI.). The best yields of small grains are obtained in countries too cool to probably indicate the relative numbers of the different breeds and the blood characteristics of the grade animals. Shorthorn and Hereford cattle are the most important beef breeds in the United States (Table XX.) . Nearly all of the steers that go to market are typical Shorthorn, Hereford or Angus cattle. The majority of the dairy cattle are Holstein-Friesian or Jersey, although Guernsey are rapidly increasing. In the southern States, the ma jority of the cattle are of the Jersey type ; in the northern States, the majority are of the Holstein-Friesian type, but the Jersey, Guernsey and Ayrshire types are quite numerous.

raise corn. The yields of potatoes in Belgium are over twice the yields in France. The small grains yield nearly twice as much as they do in France. France is warm enough to obtain small yields of corn, whereas Belgium raises practically none. The yields of all small grains and potatoes in France are higher than in the United States. Wheat yields are 8bu. higher, but corn yields are 1 obu. less. The same comparisons are shown in different parts of the United States. The average yield of potatoes in Maine is higher than that in Germany, England or France, and nearly as high as that of Belgium (fig. 14)• The yields of small grains and potatoes in Maine are higher than those in Iowa, but Iowa yields of corn averaged nearly 4obu., while Maine raises very little of this crop. The small-grain yields in Iowa are about the same as those in France, but corn yields are twice as high. The only part of the United States that has a climate approximating that of Europe is in the State of Washing ton, west of the Cascade mountains. Some of the counties in this region had yields of over 4obu. of wheat per acre in 1925, and 75 to 8obu. of oats. Crop yields are exceedingly variable. The yearly variations and the long-time tendencies are shown in fig. 14. The low prices in the period of the over-expansion from 188o-90 caused yields to decline. Rising prices caused yields to increase. The rapid advance was checked by the agricultural depression following the World War.

Fertilizers.—Avery small amount of fertilizer is used on gen eral farm crops. Most of it is used for cotton, tobacco, potatoes and truck-crops on the sandy soils of the Atlantic coast (fig. 15). The quantity of fertilizer used is decidedly variable from year to year, depending primarily upon prices received for cotton and tobacco in the preceding year. About two-thirds of the total fer tilizer is acid phosphate. Ground limestone is not listed among the fertilizer materials in Table XXII., but is one of the very important materials needed on American soils.

usually seeded with wheat or oats. If corn, oats, wheat, timothy and clover are grown, they are commonly planted in that order. In the better parts of the corn belt, corn may be planted two or more years before it is followed by oats. From southern Pennsyl vania to Kansas, there is a region which is too hot for oats. Corn can be harvested early enough to plant winter wheat. The common rotation is corn, wheat and clover. In the northern States, po tatoes are commonly grown in a three-year rotation of potatoes, oats and clover. Alfalfa lives so long that it is usually left for an indefinite number of years. Corn follows alfalfa when grown in rotation with it. In the cotton belt considerable land is planted in cotton year after year, but an increasing number of farmers are using cow peas, velvet beans or other legumes in the rotation. In the arid regions, wheat is the pre-eminent crop. Since it pays so much better than most other crops, much of the land is planted to wheat for many years in succession.

Diversity.—Whena self-sufficient agriculture was followed, each farmer grew many kinds of crops. This system was very wasteful of time. No region is well adapted to all crops, so that low yields were often obtained. The small acreage required a large amount of time per acre. A large production was not required, because all that was necessary was to supply the farmers' needs. With the introduction of machinery, it became necessary to have an income and sufficient acreage to use machinery effectively. There has been a steady movement to grow the major part of each crop in the region that is best adapted to it. Most farming com munities specialize on one or a few products. For instance, 82% of the hens in Sonoma county, Calif., in 1924 were kept in flocks of over 9oo; 50% in Suffolk county, Long Island, N.Y., were kept in flocks of more than 450. One-half of the cows in New York State are in herds of 20 or more.

In some regions, several products pay about equally well. Such regions are quite diversified. In others, the second-best product yields a very poor return, compared with the best. Such regions are highly specialized. Cotton, peanuts and tobacco have been in-. creasing so rapidly that the percentage of farms reporting them increased in the 25 years ending with 1924 (Table XXIII.). The acreage per farm also increased. For nearly all the other crops, the percentage of farmers growing the crop decreased in the 25. year period. In every case shown in Table XXIII., and for nearly all other crops, the acreage grown per farm increased.

Most of the soils in the eastern half of the United States need limestone for the best growth of clover. In recent years, methods of grinding limestone have been so cheapened that vast quantities will be used as soon as agriculture becomes more profitable.

Cropping Systems.

Inmost parts of the United States cer tain principles of cropping are followed, but fixed rotations are not common. In regions where timothy and clover are grown, they are The increases are particularly striking for vegetables and other minor crops. The farmer who grew lettuce in the mountain States produced an average of Sac. per farm, and on the Pacific coast 9 acres. In the Pacific coast States, those who grew beans raised 38ac. per farm. Those who grew sugar beets in the mountain States grew i8ac. per farm. In the west north central States those who grew corn raised an average of 45ac. Those who grew winter wheat raised an average of 65ac.

The percentage of the farmers growing hogs decreased from 68 to 57 in 15 years, and those keeping dairy cows decreased from 81 to 59%. The percentage keeping poultry decreased only slightly, but the number of chickens kept per farm increased nearly 5o%. A considerable part of this is due to the establish ment of large commercial flocks of from several hundred to several thousand hens.

Co-operation.—Therehas been a rapid increase in the amount of business done co-operatively. In of the farmers marketed their products co-operatively and 6% did some co-op erative buying. In some parts of the country co-operative fire insurance is practically universal. Large numbers of farmers borrow co-operatively through the Federal land banks. In 1924, the farmers purchased $76,000,00o worth of products co-opera tively, and sales amounted to $858,000,000. In Iowa, tenants did In Feb. 1928, there were 461,719 farmers using the system. The total loans outstanding amounted to The land-bank system is under the general supervision of the Farm Loan board, which is appointed by the President of the United States. Each bank is managed by a board of directors. Three of them are appointed by the Farm Loan board, four are elected by the borrowers, but the seventh is subject to approval by the Farm Loan board. The banks obtain their funds through the sale of bonds to the investing public. They cannot charge the borrower more than i % above the rate paid on the bonds. The Federal Land Bank bonds sell at a low rate of interest, so that these banks are usually the first to reduce interest rates. All the profits above the amount set up as reserves are returned to the bor rowers as dividends on the stock held by the farmers who borrow. Each borrower is required to invest $5 in stock for each $too bor rowed. Most of the loans are made for 20 or 36 years. When the banks were first started, the usual method of payment was 1 on the principal the first year and an equal total payment in each successive year. The interest payments steadily declined and the payments on principal steadily increased. A form of loan now coming into general use requires payment of the total principal in 20 or 33 years by paying 5 or 3 percent of it each year, in addition to payment of interest. This makes the total payment decrease each year. It allows the farmer to pay more than one instalment on the principal when he has a good year and skip payment in a bad year, provided he had paid in advance in the good year. The portion of the mortgage business done by the co-operative Federal land banks is rapidly increasing. Life insurance com panies, private land banks, mortgage companies, banks and indi viduals also lend money on farm mortgages. The Federal Inter mediate credit banks owned by the Federal Government, but managed by the land bank officers, lend money to marketing agencies on warehouse receipts and discount notes for banks and credit corporations. Most of the short-time credit used by farmers is furnished by banks or by dealers who sell goods on time. For tenant farms, landlords supply considerable credit. It is expen sive for dealers to furnish credit; consequently farmers pay a very high rate of interest. Part is paid as interest, but a large part is covered by charging a high price. Mortgage credit is readily almost twice as much co-operative purchasing and selling as did the owners. Grain, dairy products and live-stock were the leading products handled.

Credit.—Co-operativecredit is available through the 12 Fed eral land banks. Although called Federal, the Federal Govern ment owns no share in eight banks, and only 1 % of the total stock of the 1 2 banks ; all other stock is owned by the borrowers, available on easy terms, but equally good short-time credit facilities have not been developed.

Roads.—Nowthat the horse has been so largely supplanted by automobiles and trucks, the road question has become of great importance to farmers. Roads are used even more as interurban thoroughfares than by farmers. Formerly all roads were consid ered local and practically all support came from the localities.

Now that roads have become national, farmers are often taxed to build roads for city use. On the primary highways in Pennsylvania, New York and Maine, 5% of the traffic was farm travel, in Georgia, 9%, and in Illinois, io%. Much more than this per centage of maintenance is usually contributed by farmers. In 1925, 7.5% of the farng were on hard-surfaced roads and 15% on gravelled roads. The percentage on hard-surfaced roads was highest in the Middle Atlantic States, averaging 22%, but the per centage on either hard-surfaced or gravelled roads was highest in the east north central and Pacific States (Table XXVII.). From the standpoint of agriculture, the most important problems are the increase in the number of lateral roads and an adjustment in the methods of financing so that the local communities will pay no higher percentage of the cost of construction of these roads than their use is of the total use.

Tenancy.—Abouttwo-fifths of the farms in the United States are operated by tenants and the percentage is increasing. As the amount of machinery and other capital necessary to start farming increases, a longer time is required for a hired man to accumulate enough property to become an owner.

The percentage of tenancy is highest in the southern States where there are many negro tenants, and in the Middle West, where the capital per farm is high (Table XXVIII.). In New England, only 7% of the farms are operated by tenants' and in the west south central States 53% are so operated (Table XXIX.). The most common form of tenancy is to share the crop for the farm. In regions where live-stock is produced in considerable quantities, the live-stock products are also shared. About one fifth of the tenants pay cash rent. When a share of the product is given as rent, the fraction is usually one-third, two-fifths, one half, etc. The difference between two-fifths and one-half may be very large when expressed in dollars. For this reason, a consid erable number of share tenants pay some cash in order that the contract may be more closely adjusted to the value of the lease (Table XXX.).

In the cotton belt, two other forms of tenure have been adopted, primarily for negro tenants who require close supervision. One of these is called standing rent, in which the tenant pays a given quantity of cotton or other crop, regardless of the yield. All that he raises above this quantity is his own. This is intended to encourage more attention to the crop.

The cropper system is also classed as tenant farming, but is, in reality, half way between hired labour and tenancy. The owner of the farm furnishes mules and equipment, feed, fertilizer and living expenses for the worker. The worker receives a share of the crop and agrees to repay money advanced for his living. If the crop is good, payment is made; if not, the landlord may lose the money.

Farm

the World War, wages of farm labour were highest in the western States. Following the war, competition with nearby cities made farm wages in New York higher than in the West. Wages are lowest in the southern States, the average monthly payment in Alabama being less than one-half of those in the North (Table XXXI.).

Farm wages are influenced by prices of farm products and by conditions of employment and wages in cities. Near industrial centres, city wages have more effect on farm wages than do prices of farm products. For the United States as a whole, the wages of farm labour are influenced more by prices than by city wages (fig. 16). The average hours worked by farm operators per year are 3,o2o, but there is great variation from this average in different areas. The negroes take so many holidays that the farm labour reported for some of the southern States amounts to only hours. The total for Wisconsin is 3,421 hours. Since this is a dairy State, a large amount of work is done on Sundays and in all seasons. The Wisconsin farmer works about two-thirds more hours than farmers in some of the southern States and many more than farmers in China. Hard work is an important factor in the prosperity of the American farmer. He spends more years in school than does the Asiatic or negro farmer. He works more hours per year and usually is able to retire earlier. He may work fewer hours in his lifetime than the Asiatic farmer. In the regions compared with those of Europe or Asia, they are small if measured in terms of workers. The labour force of the average farm consists of the operator, one hired man for each three farms and one mem ber of the family assisting the operator for each three farms. The average farm, therefore, has less than two workers (Table XXXII.) .

that depend on crops, the amount of work during the summer is much higher than in the winter. Because of the use of machinery and the character of the population, the amount of work done per worker is very great. In China and India, there are lac. of crop land per worker engaged in agriculture; in England, 9; and in Iowa, 56. When the high yield of corn per acre is considered, this large acreage indicates the very high production per worker in Iowa. The production per worker in the southern States is much lower because negroes do so much of the work. They accomplish much less per hour because so little machinery is used. There are only ioac. of crops per person engaged in agriculture in South Carolina. While farms in the United States are large in acreage Yields per acre in the United States are lower than in western Europe, but crop acres per worker are so much higher that the production per worker is about three times as much as in Europe, and six times as much as in Italy. From 1910-25, the population of the United States increased 23,000,000, but the farm popula tion decreased over 3,000,000, in spite of which, the crop produc tion increased about I o%. In 1925, the farm population was 28,984,221, or one-fourth of the total population.

Many more children are born on farms than are needed to do the farm work. Probably about one-half of the farm children go to cities. There is a constant movement from farms to cities and a smaller flow from cities to farms. A ten-year study of this ques tion in New York State showed that on the average, about five persons went to cities from the farm for about every two persons that left the cities for the farm. The rate of movement from year to year was primarily dependent on conditions of city employment and profits of farming. In 192o, the net movement from New York farms to cities was 24,000. The following year, unemploy ment in cities was serious and the net movement was only 3,000.

Exports and Imports.—The chief agricultural exports are :otton, wheat and pork. Nearly one-half of the cotton crop is !xported. For a number of years before the World War, exports )f food products declined, but exports of cotton increased. In he war period, there was a great increase in exports of food, but decline in exports of cotton. After the war, food exports declined -apidly, but exports of cotton increased.

About three-fourths of the pork exported goes to Europe. Con siderable pickled pork and pickled beef go to tropical countries. Most of the cotton and wheat go to Europe. Condensed milk, powdered milk, cheese and eggs are exported to tropical countries. ks a whole, the major exports go to Europe and the major im ports come from the tropics. The chief agricultural imports are sugar, coffee, hides, rubber and wool, all of which have constantly increased (Tables XXXIII., XXXIV., p. 416) .

Taxation.—Theusual method of farm taxation in the United States is a capital levy. The farms are assessed on the estimated value at market prices. In most States, machinery, live-stock and ether personal property are similarly appraised. A certain percent age of this appraisal value is taken for school taxes, another for local and State taxes. A few States do not levy direct taxes for State purposes. Farmers contribute very little direct taxes to the Federal Government, as it levies no taxes on property. This sys tem of taxation was fairly satisfactory when conditions were so uniform that the market price of a property represented its in come-producing power. Such a method of taxation is unfair to industries with a slow turn-over. The most striking cases are forests and orchards, which give no returns for many years; agri culture as a whole has a very slow turn-over compared with commerce (Table XXXV.).

So much income is now derived from salaries, copyrights, patents, use of mails in advertising, etc., that real estate is no longer a good measure of ability to pay. Another difficulty is that railroads and manufacturing plants derive their revenue from large areas, but when taxed as real estate in some political unit, the tax does not go to the regions that contribute the business. With the growth in total taxes, considerable dissatisfaction with this method of taxation is developing. A few States are discontinuing direct property taxes and most States are raising an increasing percentage of their income from other sources. However, revenues for schools, roads and local gov ernment are based on property.

Dissatisfaction with this sys tem is resulting in increased aid for schools and roads from the State and nation.

The changes in taxes on a few farms in New York State indi cate the increasing burden of tax ation. One hundred years ago, six days of labour at farm wages were required to pay the taxes, but now about 37 days are re quired. The taxes could have been paid with 3bu. of wheat, but 1 o4bu. are now necessary.

In most States, taxes were from two to nearly three times as high after the World War as before. They rose almost di rectly in proportion to wages.

The major portion of the farm taxes are spent for labour and for salaries of school teachers and other public employees. Therefore, they rise as these payments advance.

Land Values.

Theaverage value per acre of farms in the United States nearly doubled in the 5o years ending with 1900 and doubled in the following 1 o years. Prices declined from 187o 8o, and from 189o-1900. They rose rapidly from 1910-2o and de clined thereafter. The rise in the price of farm-land does not indicate an increase in the value of the same property. Thousands of acres of land were drained. Many new buildings were erected and others improved. Land was cleared, fences were built, orchards were planted. There is no way of telling what portion of the increase was due to improvements and what portion to rising prices. Prices in typical States are shown in Table XXXVI. The corn belt is the region of highest land price and has shown the greatest increase in prices.

The acres of land that could be bought with the cash paid for a month's labour in addition to board, are shown in Table XXXVI. The largest amount of land that could be bought with a month's labour was in 1925 when one-half more land could be purchased than in 187o or io. Some farmers acquire land by gift or inheritance, but the majority acquire it by working as hired men or as tenants. The most common single method is to work as a hired man and later as a tenant.

Prices.

American agriculture is characterized by family farms operated with machinery on a commercial basis. When the chief purpose of the farmer was to raise his own supplies, prices were of minor concern. A large crop was an occasion for thanksgiving and was in fact the origin of Thanksgiving Day. With commercial agriculture, a large crop usually brings the American farmers less than a small crop. Formerly, a large crop meant that the farmer would live well. To-day, with commercial agriculture, it means that he lives poorly.

The relations of the size of the corn crop to prices paid to farmers in Iowa, and to prices in Chicago and Liverpool, are shown