GERONTOCRACY, a system of government by old men. Almost everywhere in primitive society, old age commands respect and gives authority and prestige. The older members of the com munity may take a less active part in the ordinary daily occupa tions of the people, but as the great depositories of tradition they exercise an influence referable to their experience and knowledge of precedent, and their leadership in ceremonial and political matters is often pronounced. In some communities their authority is so great that they even constitute a dominant ruling class, able to control and guide the conduct of the community in all departments of its activity. The distinctive feature of this gerontocracy (from Greek words meaning rule of the old men), is that political authority is not invested in any persons as in dividuals, but in the elders as a class. This form of government develops chiefly where the political unit is a small local group, and where the absence of any strong central authority tends to accentuate the influence of age and experience. It occurs most frequently in Australia and Melanesia, and is also found in parts of Africa and America.
The nature and functioning of gerontocracy varies. As a rule, the government lies in the hands of the older men only, women being more or less rigidly excluded from political activity, while the younger men are regarded as of little importance. But the elders do not always form a body formally constituted or marked off from the rest of the community by any sharply defined line. In many parts of Melanesia, e.g., there is no organized form of government, the regulation of social affairs being in the hands of the older men generally. In particular there are a few old men to whose decisions the people consent, and whose influence is based largely on the knowledge of magic and tradition which they possess. Their authority, however, is by no means absolute, and they are not necessarily obeyed. They exercise their power not by command, but by advice, and they have no regular means of imposing their will upon the members of the community. In certain aspects of ceremonial life old women may also have con siderable authority, but otherwise their influence is slight. (See R. Thurnwald, "Politische Gebilde bei den Natiir volkern," Zeit schrift f. Vergl. Rechtswiss., 37, 379 seq., In Australia, on the other hand, the dominance of the aged men is the salient feature of public life. Among the Dieri, e.g., all the men who have passed through the initiation ceremony officially conferring the status of maturity, constitute an assembly which meets from time to time in council. Its deliberations are kept secret, and anybody revealing them to an outsider may be pun ished by death. This council decides upon all questions of im portance, and is implicitly obeyed by the rest of the community. It administers justice according to a well-understood code, pun ishes breaches of tribal law, and regulates the ceremonies and movements of the group. At the same time old men who are distinguished in war, magic or debate, will stand out in the council, and their influence over its other members is marked. (A. W. Howitt, Native Tribes of South-east Australia, 295 seq.; 320 seq., 1905.) Similarly in northern Queensland the camp council is a secret assembly including all the older men of some consequence, and its authority in social affairs is supreme. Here also, how ever, there are gradations of power dependent upon personal factors, and a man who has passed through the various stages leading to an elder's status, or who is renowned as a warrior or magician, or has a large following acquired by plural marriage, is likely to exercise more than usual influence. (W. E. Roth, North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin 8, 5 seq., 1906.) Elsewhere membership of the elders' council is more restricted. In certain parts of Melanesia, e.g., in the Banks islands, it is de pendent upon a man's position in the secret societies which play so important a part in the life of the community. These societies comprise a hierarchically graded series of divisions, in which each grade is entered by initiation and payment. The process of initiation becomes more complex and expensive the higher the rank attained, and as the government of the community rests entirely in the hands of the men of high tank, the rulers are necessarily old and wealthy men. Owing both to their position in these societies and to the belief in their magical powers, they wield great authority in the tribe. (W. H. R. Rivers, History of Melanesian Society.) A system somewhat similar in nature is found in parts of east Africa, where a man passes successively through the various age-grades into which the population is divided (see AGE-GRADES), until he reaches the grade of elders, election into which enables him to take part in the government of the community. (See C. W. Hobley, Bantu Beliefs and Magic, 209 seq., 1922.) Age in itself is therefore not always a sufficient claim for supreme political prestige. Other qualifications are usually de sirable as well, and the nature of these varies with the type of society. Sometimes it is knowledge of magic and tradition, some times wealth, sometimes ability in war or debate which adds to the authority of the old men. Frequently they will retain their prestige only as long as they are in possession of their full mental and physical powers. But that age alone may count for a great deal is seen, e.g., in the case of the Yaurorka headman cited by Howitt, who was almost childish from old age and had to be carried about, but whose power and prestige remained unshaken.
Similarly the power of the old men will vary according to the activities of the group. Where the respect for tradition is en hanced by complicated religious and magical ceremonies, as in Australia, the absolute dominance of the elders is the most con spicuous social phenomenon. Where, again, as among some of the Plains Indians of North America and in parts of East Africa, military activities predominate, the fighting men may dispute leadership with the aged ; while, as in Melanesia, the men's secret societies will often supplant the control of the council of elders. There is thus no uniform pattern of gerontocracy, but rather a general tendency the direction of which is determined by local circumstances.
See R. H. Lowie, Primitive Society (1921, bibl.) ; W. H. R. Rivers, Social organization (1924) ; G. C. Wheeler, The Tribe and Intertribal Relations in Australia (191o) ; A. Knabenhans, Die Politische Organi zation bei den australischen Eingeborenen (1919) ; R. Thurnwald, Die Gemeinde der Banaro (1921) . (I. S.)