HARDING, WARREN GAMALIEL 29th President of the United States, was born at Corsica (then Bloom ing Grove), Morrow county, Ohio, on Nov. 2, 1865, son of George Tryon Harding, a farmer and country doctor, and Phebe Elizabeth Dickerson. He studied in the common schools, and from 14 to 17 at the Ohio Central college at Iberia. He taught in a country school for a year, read law for a short time, worked in a news paper office and in 1884 became editor and proprietor of the Marion Star. On July 8, 1891, he married Florence Kling. Hav ing attracted the notice of Senator Joseph B. Foraker, he was encouraged to enter State politics, and was early recognized as an effective speaker. He served two terms in the Ohio senate (19oo—o4), and during the second was influential in securing Senator Foraker's re-election to the U.S. Senate. From 1904 to 1906 he was lieutenant-governor of Ohio, but in 1910, when nomi nated for governor by the Republicans, was defeated by a plu rality of i oo,000. In the campaign of 1912 his paper supported President Taft. In 1914 he defeated Foraker in the Republican primaries as candidate for the U.S. Senate, and was elected with a majority of i oo,000 for the term of 1915-21 ; his friendship with Foraker remained unchanged.
In 1916 Mr. Harding was delegate-at-large from Ohio to the Republican National Convention, of which he was chosen per manent chairman. In the Senate he was regarded as a "safe" man, who could be relied upon to support orthodox Republican poli cies. In 1915 he urged "preparedness" for naval defence. In 1916 he voted against the confirmation of Louis D. Brandeis as asso ciate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. In 1917 he gave his support to the declaration of war against Germany, and also to all the war measures, including the Selective Draft and Espion age bills. He favoured the death penalty for spies, but after the war advocated amnesty for political prisoners. He opposed the suggested Federal control of food and fuel. He favoured the Prohibition amendment and voted for the Volstead Act over the President's veto. He favoured the anti-strike clause of the Cum mins Railway bill, and voted for return of the lines to their owners within a year after the end of the war. He was for exempting American shipping from Panama Canal tolls and also supported woman suffrage. He was opposed to the Covenant of the League of Nations, holding that "either the Covenant involves a surrender of national sovereignty and submits our future destiny to the League, or it is an empty thing, big in name, and will ultimately disappoint all of humanity that hinges its hopes upon it." He voted for the Lodge resolution of ratification of the Versailles Treaty, with reservations, and against the Under wood resolution of unconditional ratification. He maintained that Americans should show chief concern for America, and opposed all tendencies toward internationalism. He supported the Knox resolution declaring that war with Germany was ended.
At the Republican National Convention in 192o Mr. Harding was not at first among the prominent candidates for president. On the first ballot he received 651 votes (493 being necessary for choice), 39 of these being from his own State. On the eighth ballot he received 1331 votes, on the ninth 3744 votes, and on the tenth he secured the nomination with 6924 votes, the result being due largely to the support of certain influential U.S. Senators, delegates to the convention, who hoped that as president he would be amenable to the Senate. He did not "stump" the coun try, but conducted his campaign from the "front porch" of his own home. Mr. Harding based his campaign chiefly upon criti cism of the Wilson administration, denouncing especially the excessive power that, as he maintained, had been exercised by the executive as a result of war centralization ; he demanded as speedy as possible a return to normal conditions, political and industrial.
While opposing the Covenant of the League of Nations, Mr. Harding gave to many of his supporters the impression that he desired an "association of nations," which, without the charac teristics of a super-State (such as he believed the League to be), might safeguard peace. But he retained the political support of many who were opposed, like Senators Borah and Johnson, to any sort of international association. In the November elections he won an overwhelming victory over James M. Cox, the Demo cratic nominee, also from Ohio; he carried, generally by immense majorities, all the northern States and all but one of the States on the border between North and South, and he cut down mate rially the Democratic majorities in the South. The electoral vote was 404 for Harding against 127 for Cox. The popular vote was 16,138,00o for Harding against 9,142,00o for Cox. In Ohio the popular vote was 1,182,00o for Harding against 780,00o for Cox. The sweeping character of his victory was due less to his own personal strength than to the national reaction against the Demo cratic Party and the popular feeling against President Wilson. Mr. Harding resigned from the U.S. Senate in Dec. 1920, and was inaugurated on March 4, 1921, the sixth President to come from Ohio.
President Harding's cabinet, like most cabinets, was a melange of men of native ability and political or industrial experience and Party leaders who claimed office as a reward for services ren dered the new President. The outstanding names were those of Charles E. Hughes and Herbert C. Hoover, who became Secre tary of State and of Commerce respectively. The distinguished career of the former and the widespread confidence in his ability and political integrity had marked him for the most important position in the Cabinet ; and there had been a general demand that the new administration should utilize the organizing ability displayed by Hoover in many fields. The choice of Andrew W. Mellon, a wealthy banker and ironmaster of Pittsburgh, as Secre tary of the Treasury, was welcomed by men of business. Political and personal debts were paid by the choice of Albert B. Fall as Secretary of the Interior, Harry M. Daugherty as Attorney Gen eral and Will H. Hays as Postmaster General. The conduct of administrative and political affairs by these and others less promi nent in the new administration, later brought intense criticism upon the President and the Republican Party.
Mr. Harding's inaugural address, and his first message to Con gress, delivered in person on April 12, voiced his desire to return to "normalcy," as he expressed it. Retrenchment in expenditure formed a major item in his programme, together with a prompt and thorough revision of taxation. He advocated the adoption of a national budget system, and the Congress having passed a Budget bill similar to that vetoed by Wilson in 1920, he approved it on June 10, 1921 ; it provided for a Budget Bureau in the Treasury Department and the appointment of a director of the budget, the first being Charles G. Dawes, formerly general pur chasing agent of the American Expeditionary Force. President Harding's first budget was presented on Dec. 5, 1921. The Presi dent was insistent upon the need of repealing the excess profits taxes and reducing transportation taxes and income surtaxes. The need of financial retrenchment led to his opposing the pro posal that war veterans should receive a cash bonus. In this matter, as in others, he proved his ability at this early stage to resist political pressure. As regards the tariff he advocated, as a temporary stop-gap, the passing of the emergency tariff, which had been vetoed by President Wilson, but which with slight altera tion was approved by Harding on May 27, 1921. He urged the need of adopting a permanent tariff policy, and on Dec. 5, 1921, suggested a "flexible tariff" which might provide for the adjust ment of rates to meet unusual and changing conditions. Such adjustments might be made, in his opinion, by the executive on the advice of the Tariff Commission.
As regards domestic legislation, the President, in general, as sumed the role of moderator. He disclaimed any desire to enlarge the powers and responsibilities of the executive, which, he de clared, were already too large ; and he aimed at close co-operation with Congress. Foreign policy was largely determined by Hughes, financial by Mellon, and the problem of unemployment was thrown upon Hoover. The President, however, frequently played an active role in the conferences necessary to secure general agree ment, as on Aug. 9, 1921, when an accord was reached between the Treasury and the Representatives on the taxation plan.
The foreign policy of the administration at first seemed likely to emphasize independence of action, in contradistinction to that of President Wilson; the threatened war between Panama and Costa Rica was prevented by a sharp note from Secretary Hughes ; the claims of the Japanese to a mandate over Yap were stoutly denied ; the administration refused to follow Great Britain in resuming trade relations with Soviet Russia. President Harding made plain in his first message that the United States would not enter the League of Nations. In rejecting the League Covenant, he said, "we make no surrender of our hope and aim for an asso ciation to promote peace, in which we would most heartily join." The President advocated a declaration of peace with Germany by resolution, and the immediate negotiation of a treaty. This policy was adopted by Congress, which agreed upon a joint peace reso lution, signed by him on July 2. On Aug. 25, 1921, a treaty with Germany was signed, embodying the President's plan of including most of the stipulations of the Versailles Treaty, but repudiating adherence by the United States to any clause referring to the League of Nations. This treaty and similar pacts with Austria and Hungary were ratified by the Senate on Oct. 18, 1921.
The most important step taken by President Harding during the first year of his administration was the calling of an inter national conference on the limitation of armaments. On May 25, 1921, the Senate adopted an amendment of Senator Borah to the Navy bill, authorizing and inviting the President to call such a conference. Mr. Harding's preliminary invitations to the prin cipal naval Powers (Great Britain, Japan, France and Italy) were sent July io, and formal invitations Aug. 11. He indicated his belief that the question was closely connected with the problems of the Pacific and Far East, and invitations were also sent accord ingly to China and to the smaller European Powers with Far Eastern interests—Holland, Belgium and Portugal. The invita tions were accepted, and the conference assembled at Washington on Nov. 12. The President made it clear that he regarded the conference merely as a step in securing international understand ing and good-will; he advocated the convening of succeeding con ferences as a possible means of securing an international associ ation for the promotion of peace, and he approved the prin ciple of substituting an understanding between the United States, Great Britain, France and Japan regarding Far-Eastern problems for the existing Anglo-Japanese Treaty. See WASHINGTON CON FERENCE.
The Washington Conference was the highwater mark of the Harding Administration. Thereafter he faced the development of blocs in the Republican Party which destroyed its solidarity, and the growth of criticism which was manifested in the elections of 1922, as a result of which the Republican majority in the House was reduced. The administrative incompetency of office holders in Washington was widely heralded and there was more than a suspicion of corrupt dealing on the part of cabinet mem bers and their political followers, who were known to be close to the President. Government investigations later verified such sus picions and revealed an extent of political immorality in Washing ton such as had no parallel in recent times. Harding himself enjoyed personal popularity; his nature was kindly and genial, and there was general confidence in his honesty and devotion to his duties; but he was regarded as easy-going in his relations with friends and disinclined to scrutinize their activities critically. Re sentment was voiced against the Republican national organization controlled by the Old Guard ; there was outspoken criticism of the new tariff ; keen discontent among the farmers led to the election to the Senate of Shipstead and Magnus Johnson. Again the threat of a Third Party became imminent.