Batik

BATIK.) Borobuclur.—Borobudur ("Many Buddhas") is wonderfully situated on an eminence commanding an extensive view of rice fields and more distant towering volcanoes ; it is a hill that has been terraced and clothed with stone. It is in fact a low pyramid composed of successively receding platforms with re-entrant angles. The structure is thus exactly analogous with that of con temporary buildings in Kasmir, and that of earlier stupas in the Panjab and Afghanistan, and the Rawak stupa in Turkistan, which are similarly provided with extensive basements having me dian stairways on one or four sides, though none of the Indian examples has more than two terraces, so that Borobudur repre sents a more developed type. (For the sculptures see INDONESIAN AND FURTHER INDIAN ART.) Borobudur cannot be exactly dated, but was probably built at the close of the 8th century.

Candi Sewu Prambanam is a Buddhist temple which dates from the early 9th century. The large central shrine represents a further development of the Candi Kalasan design, with side chap els open to the exterior, and niches containing images. Around it, within the large area enclosed by the prakeira are two double se ries of small independent chapels, about 25o in number. The order and formality of the design are conspicuous.

After the "Restoration," c. A.D. 86o, the Hindu kings of Cen tral Java erected other great buildings at Prambanam. The Candi Loro Jongrang group consists of three large terraced temples dedi cated to Brahma, Siva, and Visnu, and some smaller shrines, with in the same enclosure. The diva temple is typical ; the actual shrine occupies the summit of a steep truncated terraced pyramid with median stairways on three sides leading directly to the main shrine and side chapels above. The whole site may have been a royal mausoleum as well as a place of ordinary worship. Nearby is the Buddhist Candi Plaosan.

These temples were no sooner built than abandoned, for about A.D. 915 Central Java was deserted, and the further development of Javanese architecture must be studied in the East and in Bali.

At Candi Lalatunda and at Belahan there are sculptured bath ing places built by Udayana and by his great son, Erlanga. The best known monuments, however, belong to the 13th and i4th centuries, the time of the great capitals at Singasari and Maja pahit. At Singasari, Candi Kidal is a aiva, and Candi Jago a Buddhist temple, but there is a mixture of the two cults amounting almost to fusion; as was also the case in Cambodia; a like condi tion survives in Bali at the present day. In far eastern Java the great Buddhist shrine of Candi Jabung dates from 1354; the cir cular tower, unique in Java, stands on the usual high rectangular terraced basement, the transition from base to tower being skil fully effected. At Panataran near Blitar there is a large aiva temple complex, recently excavated and partly restored ; the base ment of the main temple is square and terraced, with the usual re cessed corners. The associated gates and the sculpture are already in a style forecasting that of Bali.

Bali.

Bali, where alone in Indonesia Hinduism and Buddhism survive as practised cults, most probably had early and direct relations with India; but we have also to reckon with the migra tion of Javanese exiles to Bali at the close of the 15th century, by which time practically the whole of Java had received Islam. In Bali the only important early remains are the royal tombs at Tampaksiring, dating from the 11 th or 12th century, and the Pura ye Ganga temple, more or less in Panataran style, dating from the 14th or 15th century. The more modern temples of Sangsit, Bangli, Batur, Kesiman, Den Pasar, etc., consist of groups of small independent shrines enclosed by walls having high roofed gateways; with rich sculpture in limestone, in fantastic forms and high relief.

(See also ARCHITECTURE; INDONESIAN AND FURTHER INDONE SIAN AND INDIAN ART.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.-General.-J. Fergusson, A History of Indian and Bibliography.-General.-J. Fergusson, A History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (2nd ed., London, 191o) ; A. K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art (Leipzig, 1927) ; H. Parmentier, "L'Origine commune des architectures hindoues dans 1'Inde et en Extreme-Orient," Etudes Asiatiques, vol. ii. (Paris, 1925) ; L. de Beylie, L'Architecture Hindoue en Extreme-Orient (Paris, 1907) .

Burma.—Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Reports, articles by Ch. Duroiselle and by Taw Sein Ko ; do., Burma Circle ; E. Forchammer, Report on the antiquities of Arakan (1892) ; Taw Sein Ko., Archaeological notes on Pagan (1917) ; Archaeological notes on Mandalay (1924) ; Th. H. Thomann, Pagan, 1923.

Siam.—G. Coedes, "Recent archaeological progress in Siam," Indian Art and Letters, N.S., I. (1927) ; L. Fournereau, Le Siam ancien (Paris, 1908) ; G. E. Gerini, "Siamese archaeology, a synoptic sketch." Journ. Roy. As. Soc. (London, 1904) ; K. Daring, Buddhistische Tempelanlagen in Siam (Berlin, 192o) ; Der Pracedibau in Siam, Zeit. fur Ethn., Vol. 44 (1912) ; Siam, II., Bildende Kunst (1923).

Cambodia.—Articles by Parmentier and others in Bulletin de l'Ecole francaise d'Extreme-Orient; by Groslier and others in Arts et Archaeologie khmers; G. Groslier, Recherches sur les cambodgiens (Paris, 1921) ; H. Dufour et C. Carpeaux, Le Bayon d'Angkor Thom (Paris, 191o, 1914) ; H. Parmentier, L'Art khmer primitif (Paris, 1927) ; E. Aymonier, Histoire de l'ancien Cambodge (Strasbourg, 1924?) ; L. Finot, L'Origine d'Angkor, Phnom Penh (1927) ; H. Marchal, Guide aux Temples d'Angkor (1928) ; P. Stern, Le Bayon d'Angkor Thom et revolution de fart khmer, an important revision of former dating (Paris, 1927) ; L. Finot, et al., "Le temple d'Isvara pura (Bantei Srei) ," Mem. Arch. Ecole franc. d'Extreme-Orient, No. I. Campd.—H. Parmentier, "Les monuments du cirque de Mison," Bull. Ecole franc. d'Extreme-Orient, 1904; Inventaire descriptif des monu ments cams d'Annam (Paris 1909, 1918) ; J. Leuba, Les Cams et leur art (Paris, 1923).

Sumatra.—G. Coedes, "Le royaume de 8rivijaya," Bull. Ecole franc. d'Extreme-Orient (1918) ; G. Ferrand, L'Empire sumatranais de . rivijaya (Paris, 1922). (A. K. C.) Java.—N. J. Krom, Inleiding tot de hindoe-javaansche kunst (Leyden, 2nd ed., 1923) ; Het oude Java en zijn kunst (Haarlem, 1923) ; N. J. Krom en Erp., T. van, Beschrijving van Barabadur (The Hague, 192o) , and Krom's English text of the same, Barabadur, Archaeological description (The Hague, 1927) ; H. Hoenig, Das Form problem des Borobudur (Batavia, 1924) ; Publications of the Oudheid kundige Dienst and Archaeological Onderzoek op Java en Madura, Weltevreden; Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land-, en Volken Kunde, Batavia.

Bali.—N. J. Krom, "L'Art ancien de Bali," Revue des Arts Asiatiques, I. (1924) ; P. A. J. Moojen, Kunst op Bali (1926) ; W. Stutterheim, "Archaeological research in Java and Bali," Indian Art and Letters