INDOCHINA, FRENCH. The geographical denomina tion of French Indo-China includes the protectorates of Annam, Tongking and Cambodia, the colony of Cochin-China and part of the Laos country. In 1900 the newly-acquired territory of Kwang-Chow bay, on the coast of China, was placed under the authority of the governor-general of Indo-China. French Indo China, the eastern portion of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, lies between 8° 3o' and 23° 25' N. and Ioo° and 109° 20' E. It is bounded north by an arbitrary line which separates it from China, east and south-east by the Gulf of Tongking and the China sea; west by the Gulf of Siam and Siam, and north-west by Burma. The area is 274,385 sq.m., with a pop. (1931) of 21,652,00o, of which 43,839 are Europeans. Indo-China is made up of several very distinct regions; two great deltas (that of the Song-Koi, which forms Tongking, and that of the Mekong. forming Cochin China and part of Cambodia), and between them the Cordillera of Annam. To the west of this chain lie the mountainous conti nental regions of Laos. The relief of Indo-China is thus very un even, the only plains being the deltas of Tongking (13,00o sq.km.) and of Cochin-China (40,00o sq.km.) and some small coastal plains. The north of the country is occupied by the mountain knob of Upper Tongking and Upper Laos, formed of calcareous plateaux and sandstone hills, whence arises the Cordillera of Annam, which curves parallel to the coast from the Gulf of Tongking to the delta of Cochin-China, sending out seawards buttresses which bound the enclosed bays of Annam. This moun tain chain has a steep slope on the eastern side, but descends in steps on the western side to the plateaux of Laos. It is through this plateau country of Laos that the Mekong (q.v.) one of the longest rivers (1,900 m.) of south-east Asia descends in steps towards its delta. The Red river descends from the mountains of Yun-nan, rising near Tali-fu between deep and inaccessible gorges, and becomes navigable only on its entry into Tongking. Means have been taken to render it available to steam launches, and in consequence of an agreement between the State and the Compagnie des Correspondances Fluviales a service of steamers is provided from its mouth to Lao-Kay. Near Hung-Hoa the Red river receives its two chief tributaries, the Black river from the plateaux of the west—the land of the Muongs—and the Clear river, one of the largest of whose tributaries issues from the Ba-Be lakes. The Black river is navigable for a considerable distance, the Clear river only from Tuyen-Kwang. The general features of the climate, of soil and of relief, give to the rivers of Indo-China certain common characteristics; they are swollen in summer and low in winter in consequence of the monsoons; rapids and cascades play an important part in limiting navigation; their erosive activity is shown in the formation of deltas. The coasts reflect the general character of the relief, being low and muddy at the edge of the deltas, sandy along the coastal plains, and scarped and dissected at the points where the moun tains reach the sea. In spite of the great length of coastline (1,560 m.) it is therefore not favourable to navigation.
The geological history is still far from clear; the region seems to have been land in the Secondary period. In Late Tertiary times the mountain chains of Tibet, prolonged towards the east and compressed between the southern edge of the massif of China and the northern edge of the Deccan, gave rise to the confused mountain masses of Upper Tongking and Upper Laos. In the peninsula these chains spread out in two arcs, one of which, the Cordillera of Annam forms the backbone of French Indo-China. In the Quaternary, river-alluvium filled the gulfs and joined to Asia the islands which formed the nuclei of Tong king, Cambodia and Cochin-China. The geological formations belong to two main series, one Archaean and Primary, which con stitutes the main mass of the mountains and of the plateaux (granite, schists and metamorphic limestone), and the Quaternary making up the plains and deltas (continental alluvium). Recent eruptive rocks are found in the north of Saigon and in the south-west of the delta of Cochin-China.
The climate of Indo-China is that of an inter tropical country, characterized by a dry and a wet season, but with diversities due to differences of latitude, altitude and expo sure. Cochin-China and Cambodia have very regular seasons, corresponding with the monsoons The north-easterly monsoon blows from about Oct. 15 to April 15 within a day or so. The temperature remains almost steady during this time, varying but slightly from 78.8° to 80.6° F by day, to 68° by night. This is the dry season. From April 15 to Oct 15 the monsoon reverses and blows from the south-west ; the season of daily rains and tornadoes commences; the temperature rises from 8o-6° to 84.2°, at which it remains day and night. April and May are the hottest months (from 86° to 93 • 2 °) . The damp, unwholesome heat some times produces dysentery and cholera. The climate of Annam is less regular. The north-easterly monsoon which is "the ocean wind," brings the rains in September. The north-easterly gales lower the temperature below 59°. September is the month in which the typhoon blows. During the dry season—June, July and August—the thermometer oscillates between 86° and 95°. The nights, however, are comparatively cool. Tongking has a winter season—October to May. The temperature, lowered by fog and rains, does not rise above 75.2° and descends to 5o° over the delta, and to 44.6° and even 42.8°, in the highlands, where white frost is occasionally seen! The summer, on the other hand, is scorching. The wind veers to the south-east and remains there until October. The temperature rises to over 83 ° ; often it reaches and continues for several days at 95° or even more. The nights are distressingly airless. The Laos country in the interior, and lying at a high altitude, is cooler and drier. Its deep valleys and high hills vary its climate.
The fauna is abundant and varied. The wild life of Laos includes elephants, rhinoceros, one- and two horned (rhinoceros horn is employed as a "medicine"), rare as a result of hunting; tiger, panther, bears, monkeys and rats, among which is the nu-khi, or rat found in the rice-fields of the highlands, in which its ravages are considerable. In the mountain districts the leopard, wild boar and deer are found, and in the neighbour hood of habitations the tiger-cat and ichneumon. The buffalo is commonly found wild in Laos; as a domesticated animal it also holds a prominent place. The zebu bull is used for transport pur poses. There is an indigenous race of horses, excellent in spite of their small size—the horses of Phu-Yen. Birds are numerous. Reptiles (apart from the caimans of the Mekong, which attain a length of over 3o ft., and are much appreciated by the Annamese as food) are extremely numerous and varied in species. The rivers are rich in fish. The sole is found in the rivers of Tongking. The Mekong is fished for two species peculiar to it—the pa-beuk and the pa-leun, which attain a length of nearly 6 feet. All varieties of mosquitoes, ants and leeches combine to render the forests bordering the Mekong impracticable. Peculiar species of grubs and caterpillars destroy the cotton and coffee plantations of Cochin-China. The silkworm may be said to be indigenous in Tongking, where there are several thousand acres of mulberry trees.
The flora is inter-tropical, and comprises nearly all the trees known in China and Japan. The bamboo is utilized in building and a variety of other ways. Teak was found some years ago in considerable abundance, and plantations of it have been made. Certain hard woods are used for marqueterie and other orna mental work. Rubber is also exploited. Cotton, previously culti vated in Cochin-China and Cambodia, gives excellent results in Laos and in Tongking. Tea, of which there are a certain number of plantations in the highlands of Tongking and Annam, grows wild in Upper Laos. Cocoa and coffee are cultivated in Tong king and Cambodia. Cinnamon and cardamoms are gathered in Laos and Annam. Ground nuts, sesame, sugar canes, pepper, jute, tobacco and indigo are also grown. Rice is incomparably the most important crop. All European fruits and vegetables have been introduced into Tongking, and with certain exceptions—the grape, for example—succeed perfectly.
The population of French Indo-China is very hetero geneous, owing to the situation of the country, exposed to every invasion. The Annamese form the bulk of the population in Annam, Tongking and Cochin-China and four-fifths of that of the whole country; the Khmers or Cambodians; the Chams of southern Annam; the Thais, including the Laotians; and the autochthonous tribes classed by the other inhabitants as Mois or Khas ("savages"). The last-named representatives of the indigenous peoples, survive only as strays; they were driven into the interior by the now dominant races. In the north of Tong king people of Laos origin occur—the Thos round Kaobang, the Muongs in the mountains bordering the Red river. When mixed with Chinese the Muongs and the ThOs are known as the Hung-dans, Mans and Miens. The Muongs are bigger and stronger than the Annamese, their eyes often almost straight. They have square foreheads, large faces and prominent cheek bones. In the centre and south of the Indo-Chinese mountain chain are found, under a multiplicity of names, people of Malayan origin mixed with all the races of Indo-China. Laos is inhabited by an essentially miscellaneous population, falling into three main groups—the Thais; various aboriginal peoples classed as Khas; and the Moos and the Yaos, tribes of Chinese origin. (For general anthropology of this area see the section devoted to anthropology of Further Asia in the article AKA.) Religions.—The Annamese religion is a somewhat vague and very tolerant Buddhism, which in practice resolves itself chiefly into the worship of ancestors. Certain ceremonies performed in Cambodia resemble distantly the Brahmanical cult from which they are derived. The Roman Catholic religion has been intro duced by missionaries. There is an apostolical vicariate in Cochin China, one in Cambodia and several mission stations in
Administration.—Indo-China, or rather the Indo-Chinese Union, is not, properly speaking, a colony; it is an administrative scheme which comprises a colony (Cochin China), four protec torates (Annam, Tongking, Cambodia and Laos), and a special territory (Kwang-Chow-Wan). Originally Cochin-China, the only French possession in the peninsula, was a colony directly administered like other colonies, by the Ministry of Marine. As further conquests were effected, Tongking, Annam and Cambodia were subjected to the regime of a protectorate somewhat ill defined, and in 188; these territories were grouped together under the governor-general of French Indo-China. In 1893 the group was enlarged by the inclusion of Laos and, in 1898, by that of Kwangchow-Wan. The government of the colonies having been transferred (1889) from the Ministry of Marine to the Ministry of Commerce, and in 1894 to the newly-created Ministry of the Colonies, the control of the residences passed gradually into the hands of civil agents. Cochin-China, which already, by the decree of Feb. 8, 188o, had been endowed with a colonial council, had a municipality, a chamber of commerce and even a deputy in the French parliament. Indo-China is administered by a governor general, who resides sometimes at Hanoi sometimes at Saigon. The functions and powers of the latter official were, however, but vaguely defined before the decree of April 21, 1891. The residents general of Tongking, Annam and Cambodia, and the lieutenant governor of Cochin-China, as well as the military authorities, were placed under him. But this change of policy, which put an end to the system of expeditions and minor military opera tions, and restricted the power of the residents whilst restoring to the mandarins a share of authority, was unwelcome to numer ous interests, which, combining, secured the abrupt recall of M. de Lanessan, first governor-general, on Dec. 29, 1894. The decree of April 21, 1891, was not revoked, but the powers it con ferred were restricted. After the appointment of M. Doumer (1896), successor to M. Rousseau, this decree was again put in force on the former scale, and in 1898 it was supplemented by the decree of July 3 and 31, which definitely established the political and financial unity of Indo-China. The governor-gen eral is the sole intermediary between the Indo-Chinese Union and the Home Government, the powers of which, with few restrictions, are delegated to him. He controls the civil services, and though prohibited from commanding in the field, disposes of the land and sea forces in the country. His diplomatic negotiations with foreign Powers must be carried on under the authorization and surveillance of the home authorities. The governor-general is assisted by the Superior Council of Indo-China, which meets monthly and is composed of the chiefs of staff of the General Government, the deputy of kochin-China, the presidents of the chief chambers of commerce and important native members. This council has as its chief task the drawing up of the general budget and of the local budgets. The Superior Council meets not only at Hanoi, the seat of the Government, but also at Saigon, Hue and Pnom-Penh. It delegates its powers to a "permanent com mission" consisting of 13 of its members, and dispensing with the attendance of the local authorities of regions other than those in which the place of meeting is situated. The controle financier, which scrutinizes and sanctions all measures of the public services involving outlay of money, is dependent on the Ministry of the Colonies and returns communicated to the governor-general.
The governor-general is also assisted by a "council of defence," comprising the chief military and naval authorities.
The whole of Indo-China is, in principle, subject to French justice, represented by a court of appeal and a certain number of tribunals. The decree of Aug. 8, 1898, established one court of appeal for French Indo-China: two chambers sitting at Saigon and the other two at Hanoi. Three tribunals of com merce are established at Saigon, Hanoi and Hai-Phong. There are nine courts of first instance, one at Pnom-Penh for Cambodia, and two at Hanoi and Hai-Phong for Tongking. These courts are supplemented by juges de paix in Cochin-China, and there are juges de paix at Nam-Dinh (Tongking) and Tourane; elsewhere in the protectorates the residents perform judicial functions. There are four criminal courts in Cochin-China, at Hanoi in Tongking and at Pnom-Penh in Cambodia. In Cochin-China Annamese law is administered in the French courts in suits be tween natives, but native tribunals have been superseded. In Annam-Tongking, outside the sphere of the French tribunals, the natives are subject to Annamese justice, represented in each province by a mandarin called the An Sat and in Cambodia the natives are subject to the native tribunals. At the same time, whenever a French subject or European or other foreigner is a party in an affair, French justice only is competent.
The order of Sept. 9, 1898, placed the pub lic works of Indo-China under the "direct authority of the governor-general as regards works entered to the general budget account." There is a director of public works in Indo-China at Saigon, a director of engineering in the other countries. In
a "special service" was created in Tongking to consider railway business.
The country is divided into two sections for the purposes of this service, the one comprising Annam, Tongking and Upper Laos, the other Cochin-China, Cambodia and Lower Laos.
The educational movement is paral lel to the political, but as the province has over 2,000,00o chil dren of school-going age much remains to be done. In 1924-25 primary and secondary French schools had an attendance of 2,525 (about half natives) ; the 3,395 Franco-native official schools, an attendance of 213,97 7 ; the private schools (native and missionary) one of 99, 790, the expense of education being 6,000,000 piastres (1924). The 1917 public instruction code laid down the principle of the teaching of French, even in elementary schools, but there are reservations, defined in the arrete of Sept. 18, 1924. The "University of Indo-China" at Hanoi, is a high school with many branches giving practical and theoretical train ing; it aims at turning out competent native assistants for the different French administrators, and training lawyers, planters, traders and manufacturers. Most of the students are Annamese. The Ecole Francaise d'Extreme Orient at Hanoi, under the patronage of the Institut de France, conducts valuable research work in native art, history and language. It has a fine library and museums in Hanoi, Tourane, Saigon and Pnom-Penh, and has done epoch-making work in its Inventaire of Cambodian and Chaco monuments, its excavation of the ruins of Angkor, etc. (See its two vols., L'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme Orient depuis son origin jusqu'a 1920 [1922] and its semi-annual Bulletin.) Defences.—The divisional general commanding troops of Indo China (Hanoi), has under him three brigadier-generals (Tong king two, Cochin-China). Troops consist of two regiments of French Colonial Infantry (Tongking, Cochin-China) ; two bat talions of the Foreign Legion; two regiments of artillery; two detachments of French gendarmes; two flying squadrons, which also do excellent work in mapping and fiscal service. There are four native regiments of tirailleurs in Tongking, one in Cochin China. There are five "military territories" on the Chinese fron tier and in Laos. The medical service is relatively important and helps in the general sanitary organization. The navy is under the command of a capitaine de vaisseau (Saigon). The local squadron has been reduced almost to nothing since the World War. There is a question of handing the Saigon arsenal over to a private enterprise.
The unification of the budget brought about by M. Doumer (decree of July 31, 1898) specially contributed to that of the Government. The financial scheme is based on the political. In addition to the general budget, comprising the revenue and expenditure of the supreme Government, there are several local budgets, including the revenue and expenditure inci dental to the individual provinces. The general budget, under 24,000,00o piastres in 1901, was 76,466,490 piastres in 1926. The Bank of Indo-China (capital £1,440,000), besides receiving de posits and discounting bills, has the privilege of issuing notes, a privilege renewed by the French parliament in 1925.
Although there is still a plethora of French officials (about 4,600), especially in the lower ranks of the Customs and Excise and similar services, there are over 3,00o French non-officials (males), traders, manufacturers and planters. In 1922 from 2 50,000,000-300,000,00o fr. were invested in private French enterprises. Rice remains the staple product; 4,750,00o ac. in the Mekong delta were under rice in 1920. There were 62,50o ac. of rubber plantations, and other tropical plants were cultivated successfully. The anthracite mines of Hongay and Dongtrieu produce i,000,000 tons annually. The production of zinc (40,00o tons) and phosphates (20,00o tons) is important. In
hands were engaged in mining (329 Europeans). The presence of coal has given birth to a rapidly expanding industry in the Red river delta, where there are large cement works, brick, tile and ceramic works, three naval yards (besides the Saigon arsenal), two important French river steamer companies, three large cotton-spinning works and minor indus tries. Home industry (lace-making, etc.), employs many native women. The piastre, worth 2.5o fr. before the war, was, in 1926, worth 15 fr. (the piastre is worth 2,70o sapeks, the chief native coin, of zinc or tin) ; but on a piastre basis, exports have increased by 77% since 1900, imports by 14% only. Imports to France from Indo-China in 1925 were 612,000,00o fr., exports 760,000, 000. Total exports reached
fr., of which 62% repre sented rice; imports reached 1,388,593,768 fr. The customs tariff is substantially the same as that of France, severe import duties being levied on foreign goods. French goods pay no import duty, and goods exported thither are exempt from export duty, with the exception of sugar, which is regulated by special legislation, and of various other colonial products (e.g., coffee, cocoa, tea, vanilla, pepper), which pay half the duty applicable to similar foreign products according to the minimum tariff. Goods from French colonies pay no import duty. About 53% of the imports, comprising nearly all manufactured goods of European origin, come from France. China, Japan and Singapore are the other chief sources of imports.
There are now 2,075 km. of railways. The general plan, formed in 1898, will include a great trans-Indo China line, which will follow the coast from Hanoi to Saigon, and from which will branch the lines penetrating China, Laos, Cam bodia and Siam. An important line, 126 km. long, is planned which will run from Tanap to Thakhek and link up Central Laos with Central Annam. Tourist traffic is now possible and encour aged. Over 20,000,00o piastres were spent during the years 1919-25 on dredging, irrigation, etc., and 5o,o00,000 piastres on the roads, of which there are now over 30,00o km. (1 1,000 metalled, 9,00o made possible for motors in the dry season). BIBLIOGRAPHY —I.—Official and semi-official publications: Annuaire general de PIndochine (Hanoi annual) ; Rapports au Conseil de Gouvernement (annual) ; Bulletin Economique de l'Indochine (every two months with monthly statistical annexes) ; L'Indochine (no. spe cial de In vie technique, industrielle, agricole et coloniale, 1922) ; Bulletin de l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient (bi-annual) . Among the publications of the school must be noted: Intentaire archeologique de l'Indochine. (I) Monuments du Cambodge, 3 vol., with atlas by Lunet de la Jonquiere (1902-12) ; (2) Monuments Chams de l'Annam, 2 vol. by H. Parmentier (ibid. 1909-18) ; Bibliotheca indosinica, by H. Cordier, 4 vol. (1912-15) , an admirable bibliography of books and papers on the whole Indochinese Peninsula ; Memoires du service geologique de l'Indochine (Hanoi Imprimerie d'Extreme-Orient) ; Revue indochinoise, 1925, xxvii. year (ibid.) ; Henri Brenier, Essai d'Atlas Statistique de l'Indochine Francaise (Hanoi, 1914), 88 charts, 38 maps, with commentaries; Service geographique de l'Indochine, map scales: I/I,000,000; I/500,000; 1/100,000; 1/25,000 (deltas) ; Bulletin des Amis de Vieux Hue (articles of Annamese history, archaeology and art) ; J. de Galembert, Les Administrations et les services publiques Indochinois (Hanoi, 1924) ; Henri Lecomte, Membre de l'Institut, Flore Generale de l'Indochine; Les Bois d'Indochine (in preparation, 1926) . II.—Non-official: Cl. Madrolle, Guide de l'Indo chine, 2 vol. (new ed., 1924) ; H. Russier and H. Brenier, L'Indochine Franfaise (Paris, 191I) ; C. B. Maybon and H. Russier, Notions d'Annam (Haiphong, 1916) ; Chassigneux, L'irrigation dans le delta du Tonkin (1912) ; C. Dussault, Inventaire general de l'Indochine. Struc ture et geographie physique (1927) ; Lt.-Colonel Abadie, Les Races du Haut Tonkin (1924) ; Henri Maitre, Les Jungles Moi (1912) ; J. Commaille, Guide aux twines d'Angkor (1912) ; Marquis de Barthel emy, Mon Vieil Annam (Recits de Chasse) (1925) ; Marcel Bernamose, Les arts decoratif s au Tonkin (1922) ; Paul Collard, Cambodge et Cambodgiens (1925) ; Georges Groslier, Recherches sur les Cambodgiens (1921) ; Angkor (1924)• French influence in Indo-China dates from as far back as the year 1787, when, through the efforts of a great French mis sionary, Pigneau de Behaine, bishop of Adran, a treaty was signed between the "king" (Chua) of Cochin-China, Nguyen phua Anh, and Louis XVI., king of France. Though the opposition of the then governor of Pondicherry, the count of Conway, and general events, such as the French Revolution, prevented the entire execution of the treaty, a number of French officers and men, conspicuous among whom were Colonels Olivier, Vannier, J. M. Dayot and J. B. Chaigneau, helped the Annamite prince to reconquer his throne, disputed by the Tay Son rebels, and to become, in 1801, the founder of the new imperial dynasty of the Nguyen. His line (under the name Gia Long) is still in possession of the power in Hue. The remains of the Vauban fortifications built by the French, who aided the Annamite prince a century and a half ago still confront the visitor to the capital and other towns.
Such was the respect Gia Long professed for the bishop of Adran that he had, at the latter's death in
a tomb (temple) specially built for him, close to Saigon, and himself composed Pigneau's epitaph, which can be read to this day. Gia Long proved a great ruler; a new Code was enacted, inspired (as are most Annamite institutions) by the Chinese Code; great public works were undertaken, and a new land-survey instituted.
His successors were averse to French influence and started persecutions of the Christian missionaries and natives. For 4o years, from 1833 onward, eight European bishops and 15 missionaries were put to death; 20 others incar cerated and tortured, and several died of misery in the mountains, where they had taken refuge. Many thousands of Annamese perished among the 6o,000 who had then embraced the Christian religion (they are over a million now). The French and Spanish Governments (some of the priests killed were Spaniards) only intervened in 1858 by the capture of Tourane, the port of Hue, under Admiral Rigault de Genouilly; but the real campaign in Cochin-China began in 1861, under Admiral Charner. Saigon was taken in February, and by treaty of June 5, 1862, the three eastern provinces of Cochin-China were ceded to France.
Then began the "administration of the Admirals" (1863-79), foremost among whom was Admiral de la Grandiere (1863-68).
Under this administration the first protectorate treaty was signed with Cambodia, the local administration was organized, Doudart de Lagree and Francis Garnier's exploration of the Me kong (1866-68) was undertaken, and as a counter-move to the continual revolts in the three western provinces of Cochin-China, these were annexed in 1867.
Admiral Dupre (1873), with Luro, an ex-officer of the navy, instituted at Saigon a college for French probationary adminis trators. In November of the same year, Lieut. Francis Gamier, with 188 men, became master of the delta provinces of Tongking (q.v.). He had been sent on a mission of enquiry into the differ ences between the merchant, Jean Dupuis, and the Annamese authorities in Hanoi. Gamier was killed in Dec. 1873. In March of the next year a protectorate treaty was signed by France and the emperor Tu-duc. Tu-duc, however, still sent an embassy to China promising "obedience," although he had promised "to con form his policy to that of France." This raised many difficulties in the enforcement of the treaty. An expedition being deemed necessary, in 1882 Henri Riviere took charge, and was killed in 1883. Annam united with China in a war against France, in the course of which Admiral Courbet bom barded the Foochow arsenal and defeated the Chinese at Son-Tay. Hostilities ended with the signature of two treaties (with Annam June 6, 1884, and with China April 4, 1885) . The frontiers be tween China and French Indo-China were defined in two conven tions (June 26, 1887, and June 20, 1895), and the bay and ter ritory of Kwang-Chao-wan, in the province of Kwangtung were leased to the French (April 12, 1898).
Af ter the 1884 treaty a new French protectorate was organized, with Paul Bert as first resident-general. On Bert's death, M. Constans was appointed the first governor general of Cochin-China, Cambodia, Annam and Tongking (1887). In the succeeding years lack of harmony between the French mili tary and civil administrations and failure to appreciate the pro visions of the protectorate system, led to difficulties. These were augmented by Chinese attacks along their frontier. Under the governorship of J. L. de Lanessan (1891-94) affairs improved and the decree of April 21, 1891, gave the governor-general real powers, which were clearly defined in the decree of Oct. 20, 1911, again reinforced by a decree on Sept. I1, 192o, whereby the gov ernor-general became a legislator. He can dissolve or suspend the Colonial Council, an elected body mainly French, but his financial measures are supervised by the director of financial control. An ordinance of the governor-general can, however, at any time be revoked by the Colonial minister in France.
In Tongking, wherever the status of the Annamese is directly concerned, the sanction of the emperor is necessary. It was an ordinance of the emperor Khai Dinh (July 16, 1917), which or dered the putting into force, both in Tongking and in Annam, of the five new Codes on the organization of the tribunals, com mercial and civil procedure and the penal laws. The new Civil Code was put aside for revision by a commission where Annamese mandarins are in the majority.
There was instituted in the colony a geographical service for explorations and surveys, and splendid geodetic and cartographic work has been done. In 1927 M. Varenne prepared a new scheme, for the Council of Government to be composed of 6o members (35 Frenchmen and 25 natives), 32 of whom were to be elected by local assemblies, 12 (nine French and three natives) by the Chambers of Commerce and Agriculture, and 16 (ten French and six natives) to be appointed by the governor-general.
In Aug. 1928 Pierre Pasquier was appointed governor-general. His whole administrative career had been in connection with Indo-China, he being the first to enter on his task with such a preparation. There are many problems still confronting adminis trators in a country of 20,000,000 inhabitants of mixed race and civilization. The old self-recruited village oligarchy of head men is dying out; attempts to combine in some measure the old and the new regime have not been conspicuously successful. So far compulsory education exists only in Cochin-China, and the gen eral medium of instruction is quoc ngu, or romanized Annamese, a system devised originally by Portuguese to avoid Chinese charac ters. In Feb. 1934 Rene Robin was appointed governor-general.
The present emperor of Tongking, Prince Vinh Tuy, whose official name is Bao Dai, succeeded his father in 1926. While he was being educated in France, according to his father's wish, the regency was exercised by the president of the council of Annamese Ministers. (See also CAMBODIA, TONGKING, SIAM, ANNAM, sub sections History.) (Hi. BR.)
