GREED INSCRIPTIONS (a) Religious.—I. Temples, Their Foundation and Adminis tration.—A temple was often a kind of religious corporation under the control of the State ; and its accounts and details of adminis tration were made public at frequent intervals, usually annually, by means of inscriptions, exhibited to public view in its precinct. Many such inscriptions have been found, and supply a great deal of information that can be obtained from no other source. Some great temples, such as that of Apollo on the island of Delos, held great amounts of property, both real and portable, the latter taking the form either of more or less precious offerings dedicated in the temple and its surrounding buildings, or of coined money. The inscriptions accordingly record gifts and acquisitions of landed property, leases and assignments, payments of rent and fines for default, loans and interest and many other business trans actions suitable to a great landed proprietor or to a bank. They therefore throw much light upon the social and economic condi tions of ancient life, such as are nowhere else recorded. Again, the lists of offerings dedicated in the temple and other buildings enable us to realize almost visually the appearance of their con tents. These are described as being on the floor, on the walls, on shelves or in cases; they consisted of vases and other objects suit able for use in the temple service; ornaments and jewels; statuettes, mostly in gold and silver; weapons and tools; coined money; and bullion, mostly melted down from old offerings. The detailed care that was taken in this last case, to ensure that the full weight of these objects was preserved, whether made into a new vessel or not, is recorded in other inscriptions. These elaborate inventories were checked and revised by each successive board of administrators, and gave the best possible security against any robbery or peculation. In addition to such general lists, there are also innumerable records of various gifts and acquisitions, whether of land and houses, or of movable property of all sorts. Buildings and repairs are also recorded, sometimes by the State, sometimes by individuals, whose piety and generosity are suitably honoured. In form, these are often hardly to be distinguished from public works of a secular character, which must be mentioned later.
The inscriptions on or belonging to special dedications are often of great historical interest—there need only be quoted the inscription on the famous snake column, once at Delphi and now in the Hippodrome at Constantinople, with the list of the Greek States which took part in the Persian war; and that relat ing to the Roman arms dedicated by Pyrrhus of Epirus at Dodona after his victories. Most of the great temples being of immemorial sanctity, it is hardly to be expected that any records of their foundation should be found in inscriptions. But on the other hand we have many accounts of the dedication of new temples, either by states or communities or by private individuals. In almost all such cases it was necessary to obtain sanction for the foundation from the State ; thus the inscription often takes the form of a decree of the people authorizing the foundation of the temple, and often giving some privileges to the founder or a. Priests and Other Oficials.—Inscriptions give much informa tion as to priests and other religious officials. There are in the first place lists of priests, some of them covering long periods and even going back to mythical times; there are also lists of the treasurers and administrators, who were usually lay officials appointed for the purpose, either by election or by lot. The duties and privileges of priests are recorded in many inscriptions, and vary considerably from place to place. It is recorded, for instance, what portions of a victim at any sacrifice were to be received by the priest. In any important temple this must evi dently have been far more than the priest or his family could consume, and accordingly it must have been sold, and so con stituted a considerable source of income. Consequently a priest hood was an office well paid and much sought after; and we actually find in later Greek times, especially in Asia Minor, that priesthoods were frequently sold, under proper guarantees and with due sureties as to the duties being carried out. Sometimes a fee to the priest had to be paid in cash; in some cases a priest or priestess was allowed to take up a collection on certain days. On the other hand, the duties of a priest are often recorded; he had to see to the cleaning and care of the temple and its con tents, to provide flowers and garlands for decorations and to supply the regular daily service. Sacrifices on great occasions were usually provided by the State, as also were important re pairs; but in some cases a priest undertook these on his own account, and was honoured accordingly—for instance, by being allowed to inscribe his name in the restored temple.
Besides priests, we find many other officials of various ranks attached to temples and recorded in inscriptions. Some of these, especially those who were concerned with buildings or construc tions, or with the inventories of temple treasures and the accounts of administration, were lay officials appointed by the State, as in the case of political officers. But many others had specialized sacerdotal functions ; for instance, in many places there were manteis or prophets, often of special families with hereditary skill in divination; at Eleusis we find records of the hierophant, the torchbearer, and others who took part in the celebration of the mysteries. At Olympia, in later Greek times, we find a re markable list of officials, viz.: three priests, three libation pourers, two prophets, three custodians (of keys), a flute-player, an inter preter, a priest for the daily sacrifice, a secretary, a wine-pourer, three dancers at libations, a woodman (to supply wood for the sacrifices), and a steward and cook—the last no sinecure, in view of the numerous sacrificial feasts.
There were also many more menial offices in the service of temples which were carried out by slaves. Such slaves were often presented to the temple or acquired in some other way. There is a whole class of inscriptions, found on many sites, in which the sale of slaves to a temple or to the god of a temple is re corded. It is often difficult to know whether such slaves were intended for the service of a temple, or, on the other hand, such service was either purely formal or was not required at all, the sale to the temple being intended as fictitious, so as to enable a slave to acquire his own freedom and at the same time to secure the protection of the god in his free status.
3. Ritual.—The ritual appropriate to different divinities and temples varied greatly from place to place ; and it was, therefore. necessary or desirable to set up notices in all public places of worship for the information and guidance of worshippers. The commonest and most essential act of worship was sacrifice; an example of the simplest form of prescription is to be seen in the inscription on the relief from Thasos in the Louvre:—"To the Nymphs and to Apollo the leader of the Nymphs, the worshipper may, if he so choose, sacrifice a male and a female victim. It is not permissible to offer a sheep or a pig. No paean is sung. To the Graces it is not permissible to offer a goat or a pig." It is to be noticed that this order of service contains a pro hibition as well as a prescription. Such prohibitions are frequent, and often relate to the need of ceremonial purity in all wor shippers entering a sacred precinct. They must for a certain time have abstained from certain prescribed means of pollution, varying from place to place. The officials are sometimes ordered to erect notices giving information on this point ; for instance, at the precinct of Alectrona at Ialysus, it was prescribed that "no horse, ass, mule, nor any other animal with a bushy tail should enter, and that nobody should bring such animals in or wear shoes or any article produced from pigs. There is also a fine for driving in sheep." Other precincts were protected in a more general manner from any invasion or violation. It was prohibited to cut wood or to remove earth and stones, or to drive any beasts into some precincts ; the right of erecting booths was either re stricted or denied altogether. Sometimes more detailed prescrip tions are given for the whole organization of a festival ; thus, at Andania, in Messenia, the arrangements for the celebration of the local Eleusinia, the dress of the participants, the officials and policing, are very fully described. Similarly, in the hall of the Iobacchi, at Athens, the order of proceedings, the officers and the characters in the sacred play, and various administrative details are ordered.
When there is any doubt about any ritual or procedure, div ination is often resorted to, and the results of such divination are recorded in inscriptions as a guidance for the future ; it was also a common practice to consult Delphi or some other oracle in doubtful or difficult cases; there the exact method of procedure is sometimes recorded, as well as the response of the oracle. Forms of worship are often prescribed or recorded, especially hymns, which are sometimes inscribed together with their musical notation. The performance of songs or hymns and dances are also matters of constant reference, especially in connection with lyrical or musical contests ; the victorious band or performer often dedicated the prize in honour of the god. A special form of contest was that in dramatic performances, of which many records have survived, both from Athens and from many other parts of the Greek world. The regulation of athletic festivals, and the records of victors in their contests, also form a numerous class of inscriptions. As regards mysteries, though there are numerous regulations affecting the arrangement of celebrations and the conduct of those participating, there is, as was to be ex pected, very little concerning the actual performances.
Another interesting phase of Greek religion known to us mainly from inscriptions is offered by the shrines of healing. The most notable of these is the precinct of Asclepius at Epidaurus. Here have been found, on large slabs of inscription, compiled, in all probability, from earlier documents, lists of the cures effected by Apollo and Asclepius. The cures are of the most varied kinds, from painful diseases or surgical cases to a lost boy and a broken cup. The formula is in almost all cases the same : the consultant comes to Epidaurus, sleeps in the abaton, has dreams or sees visions, and comes out whole. In later times, when such faith healing had probably become less efficacious, elaborate prescrip tions of diet and hygiene are recorded.
A special form of prayer consists of curses, which were often buried in the ground, probably with the intent to reach the in fernal gods. Such curses often give the reason for their being made, usually some injury done to the author of the curse; some times they devote the offender to the infernal gods.
4. Private Associations for Religious Purposes.—Another ele ment in Greek religion which is known to us almost exclusively by means of inscriptions, is to be found in the religious associa tions that existed in many Greek cities, apart from the organ ization of state religion, though sometimes recognized by it. These associations had each its own regulations, which were duly recorded in inscriptions ; they varied greatly both in purpose and in character. Many of them had a definitely religious purpose, in the worship of certain gods; sometimes an alien community was given special permission to worship its own god or gods in its own way. Other associations were more social in character and served as clubs, or as burial societies. A remarkable feature about such associations is that the lists of members of many of them include the names of women and of slaves, thus contrasting with the civic basis of established religion in Greece, and antici pating a religion in which "there is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female." (b) Political and Social.—I. Codes of Law and Regulations. —Ancient writers state that the earliest laws of Athens were in scribed upon tablets of wood, put together in a pyramidal shape. These, owing to their material, have perished ; but we have some very early codes of law preserved on stone, notably at Gortyna in Crete. Here an inscription of great length is incised on the slabs of a theatre-shaped structure in 12 columns of 5o lines each ; it is mainly concerned with the law of inheritance, adoption, etc. Doubtless similar inscriptions were set up in many places in Greece. An interesting series of inscriptions deals with the conditions under which colonists were sent out from various cities, and the measures that were taken to secure their rights as citizens. A bronze tablet records in some detail the arrangements of this sort made when the Locrians established a colony in Naupactus ; another inscription relates to the Athenian coloniza tion of Salamis, in the 6th century B.C.
2. Decrees of People and Rulers, later of Kings and Emperors. —A very large number of inscriptions are in the form of decrees of various cities and peoples, even when their subject matter sug gests that they should be classified under other headings. Almost all legislative and many administrative measures take this form ; often a decree prescribes how and where the inscription should be set up. The formulae and preambles of such decrees vary con siderably from place to place, and from period to period. Those of Athens are by far the most exactly known, owing to the im mense number that have been discovered ; and they are so strictly stereotyped that they can be classified with the precision of algebraical formulae, and often dated to within a few years by this test alone. Very full lists for this purpose have been drawn up by Prof. W. Larfeld, in his work on the subject. It is usual to record the year (by the name of the eponymus archon), the day of the month and of the prytany (or presiding commission ac cording to tribes), various secretaries, the presiding officials and the proposer of the decree. It is also stated whether the resolution is passed by the senate (Boule) or the assembly of the people (Ecclesia), or both. The circumstances or the reason of the resolution are then given, and finally the decision itself. Some other cities followed Athens in the form of their decrees, with such local variations as were required ; others were more inde pendent in their development, and different magistracies or forms of government had various results. In the Hellenistic age, and later, the forms of independent government were, to a great ex tent, kept up, though little real power remained with the people. On the other hand it is a common thing to find letters from kings, and later from Roman emperors, inscribed and set up in public places.
3. Public Accounts, Treasure Lists, Building Inscriptions.—It was customary to inscribe on stone all records of the receipt, custody and expenditure of public money or treasure, so that any citizen could verify for himself the safety and due control of the State in all financial matters. As in the case of temple accounts, it was usual for each temporary board of officials to render to their • successors an account of their stewardship, and of the resources and treasures which they handed over. In all cases of public works, the expenditure was ordered by the State, and detailed reports were drawn up and inscribed on stone at intervals while the work was being carried out. In many cases there is a detailed specification of building work which makes it possible, not only to realize all the technical details and processes employed, but also the whole plan and structure of a building. A notable instance is the arsenal of Philon at the Peiraeeus which has been completely reconstructed on paper by architects from the building specification. In the case of the Erechtheum, we have not only a detailed report on the unfinished state of the building in 409 B.e., but also accounts of expenditure and pay ments to the workmen employed in finishing it. Similar accounts have been preserved of the building of the Parthenon, spread over I 5 years ; in the case of both the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, there are included the payments made to those who made the sculptures.
Naval and military expenditure is also very fully accounted for among other information there are records of the galley-slips at the different harbours of the Peiraeeus, and of the ships of the Athenian navy, with their names and condition. In short, there is no department of state economy and financial administration that is not abundantly illustrated by the record of inscriptions.
Tribute Lists. —A set of records of high historical value are the tribute lists, recording the quota paid to Athens by her subject allies during the 5th century B.C. These throw much light on her relations with them at various periods. (See DELIAN LEAGUE.) 4. Ephebic Inscriptions.—An institution as to which our know ledge is mainly derived from inscriptions is the ephebic system at Athens. There are not only records of lists of ephebi and of their guardians and instructors, but also decrees in honour of their services, especially in taking their due part in religious and other ceremonies, and resolutions of the ephebi themselves in honour of their officials. It is possible to trace in the inscriptions, which range over several centuries, how what was originally a system of physical and military training for Athenian youths from the age of 18 to 20, with outpost and police duties, was gradually transformed. In later times there were added to the instructors in military exercises others who gave lectures on what we should now call arts and science subjects; so that in the Hellenistic and Roman times, when youths from all parts of the civilized world flocked to Athens as an intellectual centre, the ephebic system became a kind of cosmopolitan university.
5. Treaties and Political and Commercial Agreements; Arbitra tion, etc.—In addition to inscriptions which are concerned with the internal affairs of various cities, there are many others re cording treaties or other agreements of an international character between various cities and states. These were incised on bronze or stone, and set up in places of public resort in the cities con cerned, or in common religious centres such as Olympia and Delphi. The simplest form of treaty is merely an alliance for a certain term of years, usually with some penalty for any breach of the conditions. Often an oath was prescribed, to be taken by representatives on each side ; it was also not unusual to appeal to the god in whose temple the treaty was exhibited. In other cases a list of gods by whom the two parties must swear is prescribed. Commercial clauses were sometimes added to treaties of alliance, and commercial treaties are also found, agreeing as to the export and import of merchandise and other things. In later days, especially in the time of the Hellenistic kings, treaties tend to be come more complicated and detailed in their provisions.
Another series of records of great historical interest is con cerned with arbitration between various states on various ques tions, mainly concerned with frontiers. In cases of dispute it was not uncommon for the two disputants to appoint a third party as arbitrator. Sometimes this third party was another State, some times a specified number of individuals. Thus, in a frontier dis pute between Corinth and Epidaurus, 151 citizens of Megara were appointed by name to arbitrate, and when the decision was disputed, 31 from among them revised or confirmed it. In all such cases it was the custom for a full record to be preserved on stone and set up in the places concerned. In this case the initiative in referring the matter to arbitration came from the Achaean League.
6. Proxenia Decrees.—A very large class of inscriptions deals with the institution of proxenia. According to this a citizen of any State might be appointed proxenos of another State; his duties would then be to offer help and hospitality to any citizen of that other State who might be visiting his city, and to assist him in any dispute or in securing his legal rights. The office has been compared to the modern appointment of consuls, with the essential difference that the proxenos is always a citizen of the state in which he resides, not of that whose citizens and interests he assists. The decrees upon this matter frequently record the appointment of a proxenos, and the conferring on him of certain benefits and privileges in return for his services; they also con tain resolutions of thanks from the city served by the proxenos, and record honours consequently conferred upon him.
7. Honours and Privileges Given to Individuals.—This class of inscription is in form not unlike the last, except that the honours recorded are given for all sorts of services, private and public, to the State and to individuals. A frequent addition is an invita tion to dine in the Prytaneum at Athens. Some are inscribed on the bases of statues set up to the recipient. In early times these in scriptions are usually brief and simple. The bust of Pericles on the Acropolis held nothing but the names of Pericles himself and of the sculptor Cresilas. Later it became usual to give, in some detail, the reasons for the honours awarded ; and in Hellenistic and Roman times, these became more and more detailed and fulsome in laudatory detail.
8. Signatures of Artists.—These inscriptions are of special in terest as throwing much light upon the history of art. The artist's name was usually, especially in earlier times, carved upon the base or pedestal of a statue, and consequently was easily sepa rated from it if the statue was carried off or destroyed. A case where both statue and pedestal are preserved is offered by the Victory, signed on its pedestal by Paeonius at Olympia. Occasionally, and more frequently in later times, the artist's signature was carved upon some portion of the statue itself. But in later copies of well-known works, it has to be considered whether the name is that of the original artist or of the copyist who reproduced his work.
A special class of artists' signatures is offered by the names signed by Attic and other vase painters upon their vases. These have been made the basis of a minute historical and stylistic study of the work of these painters, and unsigned vases also have been grouped with the signed ones, so as to make an exact and detailed record of this branch of Greek artistic production.
9. Historical Records.—The great majority of these fall into one of the classes already referred to. But there are some in stances in which an inscription is set up merely as a record. For instance, a victor in athletic or other contests may set up a list of his victories. The most famous historical record is the auto biographical account of the deeds and administration of Augustus, which was reproduced and set up in many places; it is generally known as the Monumentum Ancyranum, because the most com plete copy of it was found at Ancyra. The Marmor Parium at Oxford, found in Paros, is a chronological record of Greek his tory, probably made for educational purposes, and valuable as giving the traditional dates of events from the earliest time down.
Tombs and Epitaphs.—This is by far the most numerous class of inscriptions, both Greek and Latin. In early times there is often no record beyond the name of the deceased in Athens, often with the name of his father and his deme. Sometimes a word or two of conventional praise is added, such as "a good and wise man." Occasionally the circumstances of death are alluded to, especially if it took place in battle or at sea. Such epitaphs were frequently in metrical form, usually either hexameters or elegiacs. Many of them have been collected, and they form an interesting addition to the Greek anthology. In later times it be comes usual to give more elaborate praise of the deceased ; but this is hardly ever so detailed and fulsome as on more modern tombstones. The age and other facts about the deceased are oc casionally given, but not nearly so often as on Latin tombstones, which offer valuable statistical information in this respect.