ICELAND, an island in the North Atlantic ocean (Dan. Island). Its extreme northerly point is touched by the Arctic Circle; it lies between 13 ° 2 2' and 24° 35' W., and between 12' and 66° 33' N., and has an area of 40,437 sq. miles. Its length is 298 m. and its breadth 194 m., the shape being a rough oval, broken at the north-west, where a peninsula, diversified by a great number of fjords, projects from the main portion of the island. The total length of the coast-line is about 3,73o m., of which ap proximately one-third belongs to the north-western peninsula. Iceland is a plateau or tableland, built up of volcanic rocks of older and younger formation, and pierced on all sides by fjords and valleys. Compared with the tableland, the lowlands have a relatively small area, namely, one-fourteenth of the whole; but these lowlands are almost the only parts of the island which are inhabited. In consequence of the rigour of its climate, the central tableland is absolutely uninhabitable. At the outside, not more than one-fourth of the area of Iceland is inhabited; the rest con sists of elevated deserts, lava streams and glaciers. The north west peninsula is separated from the main mass of the island by the bays Hunafloi and Breibif jorbr, so that there are really two tablelands, a larger and a smaller. The isthmus which connects the two is only 44 m. across, but has an altitude of 748 feet. The mean elevation of the north-west peninsula is 2,00o feet. The fjords and glens which cut into it are shut in by precipitous walls of basalt, which plainly shows that they have been formed by erosion through the mass of the plateau. The surface of this tableland is bare and desolate, being covered with gravel and fragments of rock. Here and there are large straggling snowfields, the largest being Glamu and Drangajokull, on the culminating points of the plateau. The only inhabited districts are the shores of the fjords, where grass grows capable of supporting sheep; but most of the population gain their livelihood by fishing.
The other and larger tableland, which constitutes the substantial part of Iceland, reaches its culminating point in the south-east, in the gigantic snowfield of Vatnajokull, which covers 3,30o sq. miles. The axis of highest elevation of Iceland stretches from north-west to south-east, from the head of Hvammsf jorbr to Hornafjor6r, and from this water-parting the rivers descend on both sides. The crest of the water-parting is crowned by a chain of snow-capped mountains, separated by broad patches of lower ground. They are really a chain of minor plateaux, which rise 4,50o to 6,25o ft. above sea-level and 2,000 to 3,00o ft. above the tableland itself. In the extreme east is Vatnajokull, which is separated from Tungnafellsjokull by Vonarskard (3,30o ft.). Be tween Tungnafellsjokull and Hofsjokull lies the broad depression of Sprengisandr (2,13o ft.). Continuing north-west, between Hofsjokull and the next snow-capped mountain, Langjokull, lies Kjolur (2,00o ft.) ; and between Langjokull and Eiriksjokull Flosaskard (2,63o ft.). To the north of the joklar last men tioned there are a number of lakes, all well stocked with fish. Numerous valleys or glens penetrate into the tableland, especially on the north and east, and between them long mountain spurs, sections of the tableland which have resisted the action of erosion, thrust themselves towards the sea. Of these the most considerable is the mass crowned by Myrdalsjokull, which stretches towards the south. The interior of the tableland consists for the most part of barren, grassless deserts, the surface being covered by gravel, loose fragments of rock, lava, driftsand, volcanic ashes and glacial detritus.
Save the lower parts of the larger glens, there are no lowlands on the north and east. The south coast is flat next the sea ; but immediately underneath Vatnajokull there is a strip of gravel and sand, brought down and deposited by the glacial streams. The largest low-lying plain of Iceland, lying between Myrdalsjokull and Reykjanes, has an area of about 1,55o sq. miles. In its lowest parts this plain barely keeps above sea-level, but it rises gradually towards the interior, terminating in a ramification of valleys. Its maximum altitude is attained at 381 ft. near Geysir. On the west of Mount Hekla this plain connects by a regular slope directly with the tableland, to the great injury of its inhabited districts, which are thus exposed to the clouds of pumice dust and driftsand that cover large areas of the interior. Nevertheless the greater part of this lowland plain produces good grass, and is relatively well inhabited. The plain is drained by three rivers—Markar fljot, Thjorsa and Oelfusa—all of large volume, and numerous smaller streams. Towards the west there exist a number of warm springs. There is another lowland plain around the head of Faxafloi, nearly 40o sq.m. in extent. As a rule the surface of this second plain is very marshy. Several dales or glens penetrate the central tableland; the eastern part of this lowland is called Borgarf jor6r, the western part Myrar.
The great bays on the west of the island (Faxafloi and Breibi f jorbr), as weil as the many bays on the north, which are separated from one another by rocky promontories, appear to owe their origin to subsidences of the surface; whereas the fjords of the north-west peninsula, which make excellent harbours, and those of the east coast seem to be the result chiefly of erosion.
Glaciers.—An area of 5,17o sq.m. or a little more than 13% of the total area is covered with snowfields and glaciers. This extraordinary development of ice and snow is due to the raw, moist climate, the large rainfall and the low summer temperature. The snow-line varies greatly in different parts of the island, its range being from 1,30o to 4,25o feet. It is highest on the table land, on the north side of Vatnajokull, and lowest on the north west peninsula, to the south of North Cape. Without exception the great neves of Iceland belong to the interior tableland. They consist of slightly rounded domes or billowy snowfields of vast thickness. In external appearance they bear a closer resemblance to the glaciers of the Polar regions than to those of the Alps. The largest snowfields are Vatnajokull (3,28o sq.m.), Hofsjokull (520), Langjokull (500) and Myrdalsjokull (39o). The glaciers which stream off from these snowfields are often of vast extent, e.g., the largest glacier of Vatnajokull has an area of 15o to 200 sq.m., but the greater number are small. Altogether, more than 120 glaciers are known in Iceland. It is on the south side of Vatnajokull that they descend lowest; the lower end of Breida merkurjokull was in the year 1894 only 3o ft. above sea-level. The glaciers of the north-west peninsula also descend nearly to sea-level. The great number of streams of large volume is due to the moist climate and the abundance of glaciers, and the milky white or yellowish-brown colour of their waters (whence the common name Hvita, white) is due to the glacial clays. The majority of them change their courses very often, and vary greatly in volume ; frequently they are impetuous torrents, form ing numerous waterfalls.
Iceland also possesses a great number of lakes, the largest being Thingvallavatn and Thorisvatn, each about 27 sq.m. in area. Myvatn, in the north, is well known from the natural beauty of its surroundings. Above its surface tower a great number of vol canoes and several craters, and its waters are alive with water fowl, a multitude of ducks of various species breeding on its islands. Myvatn fills a depression between lava streams, and has a depth of not more than 84 feet. The group of lakes called Fiskivotn (or Veidivotn), which lie in a desolate region to the west of Vatnajokull, consist for the most part of crater lakes. The groups of lakes which lie north-west from Langjokull occupy basins formed between ridges of glacial gravel ; and in the valleys numerous lakes are found at the backs of the old moraines.
As regards their superficies, the lava-streams differ greatly. Sometimes they are very uneven and jagged (apalhraun), con sisting of blocks of lava loosely flung together in the utmost con fusion. The great lava-fields, however, are composed of vast sheets of lava, ruptured and riven in divers ways (helluhraun). The smooth surface of the viscous billowy lava is further diversi fied by long twisted "ropes," curving backwards and forwards up and down the undulations. Moreover, there are gigantic fissures, running for several miles, caused by subsidences of the underlying sections. The best-known fissure of this character is Almannagja at Thingvellir. On the occasion of outbreaks the fine ashes are scattered over a large portion of the island, and sometimes carried far across the Atlantic. After the eruption of Katla in 1625 the ashes were blown as far as Bergen in Norway, and when Askja was in eruption in 1875 a rain of ashes fell on the west coast of Norway i i hours 4o minutes, and at Stockholm 15 hours, after wards. The volcanic ash frequently proves extremely harmful, destroying the pastures so that the sheep and cattle die of hunger and disease. The outbreak of Laki in 1783 occasioned the loss of 11,50o cattle, 28,00o horses and 190,50o sheep—that is to say, 53% of the cattle in the island, 77% of the horses and 82% of the sheep. After that the island was visited by a famine, which destroyed 9,50o people, or one-fifth of the total population.
The Icelandic volcanoes may be divided into three classes: (I) cone-shaped, like Vesuvius, built up of alternate layers of ashes, scoriae and lava; (2) cupola-shaped, with an easy slope and a vast crater opening at the top—these shield-shaped cupolas are composed entirely of layers of lava, and their inclination is seldom steeper than 7°-8° ; (3) chains of craters running close alongside a fissure in the ground. For the most part the individual craters are low, generally not exceeding 30o to 50o feet. These crater chains are very common and often very long. The chain of Laki, which was formed in 1783, extends 20 m., and embraces about too separate craters. Sometimes, however, the lava-streams are vomited straight out of gigantic fissures in the earth without any crater being formed. Many of the Icelandic volcanoes during their periods of quiescence are covered with snow and ice. Then when an outbreak occurs the snow and ice melt, and in that way they sometimes give rise to serious catastrophes (jokulhlaup), through large areas being suddenly inundated by great floods of water, which bear masses of ice floating on the surface. Katla caused very serious destruction in this way by converting several cultivated districts into barren wastes. In the same way in the year 1362 Oeraefajoku11, the loftiest mountain in Iceland (6,424 ft.), swept 4o farms, together with their inhabitants and live stock, bodily into the ocean. The best-known volcano is Hekla (5,108 ft.), which was in eruption 18 times within the historic period down to 1845. Katla during the same period was active 13 times down to 186o. The largest volcano is Askja, situated in the middle of the lava-field of Oda 5ahraun. Its crater measures 34 sq.m. in area. At Myvatn there are several volcanoes, which were par ticularly active in the years 1724-30. On several occasions there have been volcanic outbreaks under the sea outside the penin sula of Reykjanes, islands appearing and afterwards disappearing again. The crater chain of Laki has only been in eruption once in historic times, namely, the violent and disastrous outbreak of 1783. Iceland, however, possesses no constantly active volcano. There are often long intervals between the successive outbreaks, and many of the volcanoes (and this is especially true of the chains of craters) have only vented themselves in a solitary out burst.
Earthquakes are frequent, especially in the districts which are peculiarly volcanic. Historical evidence goes to show that they are closely associated with three naturally defined regions: (I) the region between Skjalfandi and Axarf jor6r in the north, where violent earth tremblings are extremely common; (2) at Faxafloi, where minor vibrations are frequent ; (3) the southern lowlands, between Reykjanes and Myrdalsjokull, have frequently been dev astated by violent earthquake shocks, with great loss of property and life, e.g., on Aug. 14-16, 1784, when 92 farmsteads were totally destroyed, and 372 farmsteads and 11 churches were seri ously damaged; and again in Aug. and Sept. 1896, when another terrible earthquake destroyed 161 farmsteads and damaged others. Hot springs are found in every part of Iceland, both singly and in groups; they are particularly numerous in the western portion of the southern lowlands, where amongst others is the famous Geyser (q.v.) . Sulphur springs and boiling mud lakes are also general in the volcanic districts; and in places there are carbonic acid springs, these more especially on the peninsula of Snaefellsnes, north of Faxafloi.
All over Iceland, in both the basalt and breccia formations, there occur small intrusive beds and dikes of liparite, and as this rock is of a lighter colour than the basalt, it is visible from a dis tance. In the south-east of the island, in the parish of Lon, there exist a few mountains of gabbro, a rock which does not occur in any other part of Iceland. Near Husavik in the north there have been found marine deposits containing a number of marine shells ; they belong to the Red Crag division of the Pliocene. In the middle of Iceland, where the geological foundation is tuff and breccias, large areas are buried under ancient outflows of lava, which bear evidences of glacial scratching. These lava streams, which are of a doleritic character, flowed before the Glacial age, or during its continuance, out of lava cones with gigantic crater openings, such as may be seen at the present day. During the Glacial epoch the whole of Iceland was covered by a vast sheet of inland ice, except for a few small isolated peaks rising along its outer margins. This ice-cap had on the tableland a thickness of 2,300 to 2,600 feet. Rocks scored by glacial ice and showing plain indications of striation, together with thousands of erratic blocks, are found scattered all over Iceland. Signs of elevation subsequent to the Glacial epoch are common all round the island, especially on the north-west peninsula. There are found strik ingly developed marine terraces of gravel, shore lines and surf beaches marked on the solid rock. In several places there are traces of shells; and sometimes skeletal remains of whales and walruses, as well as ancient driftwood, have been discovered at distances from the present coast. The ancient shore-lines occur at two different altitudes. Along the higher, 23o to 26o ft. above the existing sea-level, shells have been found which are character istic of high Arctic latitudes and no longer exist in Iceland; whereas on the lower shoreline, 10o to 13o ft., the shells belong to species which occur amongst the coast fauna of the present day.
The geysers and other hot springs are due to the same causes as the active volcanoes, and the earthquakes are probably mani festations of the same forces. A feature of special interest to geologists in the present conditions of the island is the great power of the wind both as a transporting and denuding agent. The rock sculpture is often very similar to that of a tropical desert. (See Th. Thoroddsen, "Explorations in Iceland during the years 1881 1898," Geographical Journal, vol. xiii. [1899], pp. 480 513, with map.) Climate.—Iceland has an oceanic climate, that is, one of mod erate heat and cold. Though the island is large, the differences in temperature between the coast and the interior are not very marked, and considering its high latitude, Iceland has, on the whole, a much higher temperature than might be expected. At Reykjavik the annual mean temperature is C. (39.4 F.), the mean temperature in January, the coldest month of the year, is +1.2° C. (34.2 F.), while in July, the warmest month, it is +10•9° C. (51.6 F.). But the state of the weather is very unset tled, exhibiting not only sudden changes from day to day, but the same season may from year to year show great fluctuations in the weather conditions.
The warm current of the Gulf stream, which, as a rule, encir cles the land, has a marked influence on the climate. But as Ice land is situated at the outer edge of the Gulf stream, cold cur rents from the Polar basin occasionally touch its northern and, especially, its eastern coasts, imparting a great deal of chilliness to the weather. The Polar ice, too, has a considerable influence on the climate for during the latter part of the winter and in spring it is always near the north-western coast of the land, and sometimes is piled close against its shores. When this ice arrives in large masses or sheets, it blockades the harbours on the north coast and considerably lowers the temperature. The Polar ice is most frequently seen on the north, but sometimes also on the east coast.
As the country is very mountainous there is rarely the same kind of weather all over it at one and the same time. In winter storms are frequent, and often rise to a gale of wind, whereas calm weather is rare. In the south the annual precipitation in the lowlands amounts to 1,300 mm. (51 in.), while it is still heavier in the mountains, or about 2,000 mm. (78.7 in.) . The north is much drier, with an annual precipitation not exceeding 300-400 mm. Fogs are rather frequent on the eastern and, though in a less degree, on the northern shores, while the southern and especially the western coasts have but a few foggy days in a year. Thunder storms are very rare.
Flora.—The vegetation presents the characteristics of an Arctic European type, and is tolerably uniform throughout the island, the differences even on the tableland being slight. At present 435 species of phanerogams and vascular cryptogams are known ; the lower orders have been little investigated. The grasses are of the greatest importance to the inhabitants, for upon them they are dependent for the keep of their live stock. Heather covers large tracts, and also affords pasture for sheep. The development of forest trees is insignificant. Birch woods exist in a good many places, especially in the warmer valleys; but the trees are very short, scarcely attaining more than 3 to io ft. in height. In a few places, however, they reach 13 to 20 ft. and occasionally more. A few mountain ash or rowan trees (Sorbus aucuparia) are found singly here and there, and attain to 3o ft. in height. Willows are also pretty general, the highest in growth being Salix phyllicif olio, 7 to Io feet. The wild flora of Iceland is small and delicate, with bright bloom, the heaths being especially admired. Wild crow berries and bilberries are the only fruit found in the island.
Fauna.—The Icelandic fauna is of a sub-Arctic type. But while the species are few, the individuals are often numerous. The land mammals are very poorly represented ; and it is doubt ful whether any species except the fox is indigenous. The polar bear is an occasional visitant, being brought to the coast by the Greenland drift-ice. Foxes are common, both the white and the blue occurring; mice and the brown rat have been introduced, though one variety of mouse is possibly indigenous. Reindeer were introduced in 1771 and live in a wild state in the interior, especially in the North-Eastern regions.
The marine mammalia are numerous. The walrus is now seldom seen, although in prehistoric times it was common. There are numerous species of seals; and the seas abound in whales. Of birds there are over too species, more than one-half being aquatic. In the interior the whistling swan is common, and numerous varieties of ducks are found in the lakes. The eider duck, which breeds on the islands of Breil5if jorbr, is a source of livelihood to the inhabitants, as are also the many kinds of sea-fowl which breed on the sea-cliffs. Iceland possesses neither reptiles nor batrachians. The fish fauna is abundant in individuals, some 68 species being found off the coasts. The cod fisheries are amongst the most important in the world. Large quantities of herring, plaice and halibut are also taken. Many of the rivers abound in salmon, and trout are plentiful in the lakes and streams.
Population and Towns.—The Icelanders belong to the Teu tonic branch of the Aryan race. With a population of about (in 193o) which gives an average of something more than one person per square kilometre, Iceland is the most sparsely populated country in Europe. But it must be remembered that almost four-fifths of the country is uninhabited and for the most part uninhabitable. Reykjavik, the capital, is situated on the Faxafloi and is by far the largest town (about 28,00o inhabitants in 193o). Other towns include Akureyri (pop. 4,100), Hafnar f jorbur (3,500), Vestmannaeyjar (3,400), Isaf jorbur (2,500), Sigluf jorl5ur ( 2,000).
During the last quarter of the nineteenth century there was a considerable emigration to America, chiefly to Manitoba and Saskatchewan. It is supposed that about 2 5,00o Icelanders are resident in America, four-fifths of them living in Canada.
In the earlier days of its settlement Iceland suffered repeat edly from visitation of plagues and disasters. The Black Death, which ravaged the country from 1402-04 is supposed to have killed off no less than two-thirds of the population.
Industries.—The classification of the population according to occupations is shown in the summary (at bottom of left hand col umn) based upon the census of 192o.
Though farming is still the chief occupation of the population yet formerly it was so in a much higher degree. In 188o 73.2% were engaged in farming compared with 42.9% in 192o. The farm houses stand apart and isolated, each within the borders of the land belonging to it. They are never found in clusters or villages, but not infrequently two or three or (rarely) even more farm houses are built together. The farmers are largely occupied with cattle-breeding, and more particularly sheep-breeding. All farm ing in Iceland is based on the cultivation of grass. The hay from the manured homefield (tan) is almost exclusively used for cattle (cows) fodder, while horses and sheep are fed with the hay from the meadows (engi). Considerable quantities of potatoes and Swedish turnips are grown in the country. The amount ex pended by the treasury for the promotion of agriculture has in creased greatly in this century.
Fisheries now furnish employment to about one-fifth of the population. There has been a great development of the fishing fleet during the last 25 years, due to the increased employment of trawlers and motor boats. In 1929 the trawler fleet consisted of 45 ships with a total of 15,159 gross reg. tons, while other fishing steamers had a total of 3,429 gross reg. tons and the motor ship fleet (222 boats of various sizes) had a total of 5,624 gross reg. tons. This development of the fisheries has greatly influenced the distribution of the population, and has been the cause of the migration from rural to coastal districts.
The main occupation of practically the whole fishing fleet is fishing cod and cod-like species. The winter fishing season (the first 4 to 5 months of the year) off the south coast yields about three-fifths of the total catch of the year. During some 8 to 10 weeks in summer a considerable part of the fleet is employed in herring fisheries off the north coast.
The Icelandic fishing grounds are visited by a great number of steam-trawlers and fishing boats from Great Britain, Germany, the Faeroes, France and Norway. Inspection of the fishing grounds is carried out by Icelandic and Danish patrol boats, and the maritime jurisdiction of Iceland, so far as the fisheries are concerned, is fixed by a treaty made between Denmark and Great Britain on the 27th of June, 1901.
Commerce.—Compared with the number of population the total foreign trade of Iceland is larger than that of most other countries. This is largely due to the fact, that a country like Iceland, which has a very limited range of products, must de pend on foreign countries for a great number of important goods and necessaries. In 1896-190o the average annual value of the imports was about 6 million kronur, (for value in f and $ see below) and the value of the exports about 7 million kronur. In 1929 the imports were valued at 77,000,00o kronur and the ex ports at 74,200,00o kronur. As to foreign trade, Great Britain, Spain and Denmark have the first places; then come Germany, Norway, Italy and Sweden, in this order according to value (in 1929). The principal products exported are fish and fish products (chipfish, uncured saltfish, fresh fish on ice, salted and spiced herring, cod liver oil, her.:.ig oil, fish and herring guano) repre senting in 1931 9o.3 % of the total exports. Next in order comes farm produce (salted and fresh mutton, wool, sheepskins, etc.). The imports consist of goods for consumption such as cereals, coffee, sugar, tobacco, wines (hot spirits are prohibited), tex tiles and clothes, materials for production, fuel and lighting ma terials, building materials, etc.
Iceland is in the Scandinavian Monetary Union. The unit is called Krona (pl. kronur) and is divided into too aurar (sing. eyrir). The relation between kronur and English and American monetary units is at par exchange Li =18.16 kronur; 1 dollar= 3.73 kronur. The Icelandic krona followed the fluctuation of the Danish krone to 192o, but from the latter half of that year it has been quoted independently. Since October 1925 the f has been quoted at 22.15 kronur in Reykjavik. The National Bank of Iceland has the right to issue treasury notes. The international metric system of weights and measures was introduced in Iceland by law in 1907.
There are no railways in Iceland. Regular postal connection is maintained with Leith, Hull, Copenhagen, Bergen and Ham burg, by Icelandic, Danish and Norwegian steamers. Besides, steamers go round the coasts, touching practically every port. In order to facilitate communications on sea, some zoo lighthouses have been built. In 1906 a submarine cable was laid from the Shetland Islands to Seydisf jorour on the east coast. Now tele graph and telephone stations are all over the country. Since 1917 a wireless telegraph station has been in Reykjavik and since 1929 a regular Broadcasting Service.
There is a new state-owned general hospital in Reykjavik and in the neighbourhood there is a mental asylum and a sanatorium for tubercular patients.
After the year of 1943 the act of union can be abrogated by each party. The act provides that Denmark shall act on Iceland's behalf in foreign affairs. Iceland has its own legation at Copen hagen.
According to the Constitution of May i8th, 192o, Iceland is a limited monarchy, the crown and the legislative power called the Althing. This is a popularly elected assembly of 42 members, 36 of wham are elected by the constituencies for a period of 4 years. Except Reykjavik, which has 4 proportionally elected representatives, each constituency chooses one or two representa tives to the Althing. Six members are chosen, for a period of 8 years, by the whole electorate according to proportional represen tation.
The Althing meets every year in Reykjavik and is usually di vided into two houses, efrideild (upper house) and nedrideild (lower house), but on certain occasions both houses work to gether. The members forming the upper house are those elected by the whole electorate and 8 others, chosen by the United Althing from amongst the representatives elected by the constituencies; the remaining 28 form the lower house. Both houses have equal constitutional power.
The highest administrative power is in the hands of the king, but it is exercised by three ministers, who are responsible for the conduct of affairs. The seat of the Government is Reykjavik. The country is divided into 16 districts (syslur) each of which is administered by a district magistrate (syslumadur) and 8 towns, administered by town magistrates.
As to justice, the ordinary judicial court has two instances. The first instance is the lower court, presided over by the magis trates. The second instance is the Supreme court (Hoestirettur ) in Reykjavik, consisting of 3 judges. Juries are never employed in the trial of criminal cases.
There are also two state-owned co-educational Secondary Schools (menntaskolar) one in Reykjavik and one in Akureyri. The final examination or studentsprof (examenartium) entitles those who pass it to matriculation at the university. There are also a number of special (technical) schools, most of which pro vide general as well as professional instruction. The University (Haskoli Islands) of Reykjavik was founded in 191 i and has four faculties, viz. Theology, Medicine, Law and Philosophy, the last representing Icelandic philology and history.
The National Library (Landsbokasfn Islands) founded in 1818, is the largest library in Iceland, containing some 125 thousand printed volumes and about 8,000 mss. The National Record Office (Thjol5skjalasafnib) contains all the archives of the cen tral and local official administration, and, in addition, contains a great number of old letters, some written on parchment. Almost every district has its own public library.
The discovery of Iceland by the Scandinavians, c. 85o (it had long been inhabited by a small colony of Irish Culdees), led in sixty years, to the establishment of some 4,00o homesteads. In this immigration three distinct streams can be traced. (I) About 87o-890 four great noblemen from Norway, settled with their dependants in the south-west. (2) In 89o-90o there came from the Western islands Queen Aud, widow of Olaf the White, king of Dublin, preceded and followed by a number of her kinsmen and relations (many like herself being Christians), who settled the best land in the west, north-west and north, and founded families who long swayed its destinies. There also came from the Western islands a fellowship of vikings seeking a free home in the north. They had fled from Harald Haarfager's rule and colonized the west in the viking times. (3) In 9oo-93o a few more incomers direct from Norway completed the settlement of the south, north east and south-east. Among the immigrants there was no small proportion of Irish blood. In IIoo there were 4,50o franklins, i.e., about 50,000 souls.
The unit of Icelandic politics was the homestead with its frank lin-owner (buendi), its primal organization the hundred-moot (thing), its tie the gobor6 (godar) or chieftainship. The chief who had led a band of kinsmen and dependants to the new land, naturally became their leader, presiding as priest at the feasts and sacrifices, acting as speaker of their moot, and as their repre sentative towards the neighbouring chiefs. He was not a feudal lord, for any franklin could change his gobor'6 when he would, and the rights of "judgment by peers" were in full use; moreover, the office could be bequeathed, sold, divided or pledged by the possessor; still the gobi had considerable power as long as the commonwealth lasted.
Disputes and uncertainty about the law, brought about the Constitution of Ulfliot (c. 930), which appointed a central moot for the whole island, the Althing; the Reforms of T1iord Gellir (964), settling a fixed number of moots and chieftaincies, divid ing the island into four quarters, to each of which a head-court, the "quarter-court," was assigned; and the Innovations of Skapti (ascribed in the saga to Nial) the Law-Speaker (d. 1030), who set up a "fifth court" as the ultimate tribunal in criminal matters. But here constitutional growth ceased : the law-making body made few and unimportant modifications of custom; the courts were too weak for the chiefs, who defied them; the speaker's power was not sufficiently supported ; even the ecclesiastical innovations, while they secured peace for a time, provoked in the end the struggles which put an end to the commonwealth.
The political life and law of the old days is abundantly illus trated in the sagas (especially Eyrbyggia, Hensa-Thori, Reykdaela, Hrafnkell and Niala), the two collections of law-scrolls (Codex Regius, c. 1235, and Stadarhol's Book, c. 1271), the Libellus, the Liberfragments and the Landnamabok of Ari and the Diplo matarium. (See K. Maurer Beitrage zur Rechtsgeschichte des Germanischen Nordens [Munich 1852] ; Island von seiner ersten Entdeckung bis zum Untergang des Freistaats [Munich 1874].) The mediaeval Icelandic church had two bishoprics, Skalholt (1056) and Holar (1106), and about 175 parishes. They belonged to the metropolitan see of Bremen, then to Lund, lastly to Nidaros, 1237. There were several religious foundations, Benedictine and Augustinian, dating from the 12th to 15th centuries. The bishops, elected by the people at the Althing till 123 7, enjoyed considerable power; two, Thorlak of Skalholt and John of Holar, were publicly voted saints at the Althing. For ecclesiastical history see "Bis kupasogur" in Origins Islandicae Bk. 1 (ed. and trans. G. Vig fusson and F. York Powell 1905) .
Iceland was pastoral, depending upon herds for subsistence, for, though rye and other grain would grow in favoured localities, the hay, self-sown, was the only regular crop. In some districts the fisheries and fowling were also of importance. Outdoor occupa tions—fishing, shepherding, fowling, hay-making and fuel-gather ing—occupied the summer; while indoor business—weaving, tool-making, etc.—filled up the long winter. The year was broken by the spring feasts and moots, the great Althing meeting at midsummer, the marriage and arval gatherings after the summer, and the long yule feasts at midwinter. There were but two degrees of men, free and unfree, though only the franklins had any polit ical power; and, from the nature of the life, social intercourse was unrestrained; gobi and thrall lived the same lives, ate the same food, spoke the same tongue, and differed little in clothing or habits. The thrall had a house of his own and was rather villein or serf than slave, having rights and a legal price by law. During the heathen days many great chiefs passed part of their lives in Norway at the king's court, but after the establishment of Chris tianity in Iceland they kept more at home, visiting the continent, however, for purposes of state, suits with clergy, etc. Trade was from the first almost entirely in foreign (Norse) hands.
Life in the commonwealth was turbulent and anarchic, but free and varied ; it produced men of mark, and fostered bravery, adventure and progress. But on the union with Norway all this ceased, and there was left but a low dead level of poor peasant proprietors careless of all save how to live by as little labour as possible, and pay as few taxes as they could to their foreign rulers. The island received a foreign governor (Earl, Hirdstjori or Stiptamtsmadr as he was successively called), and was parcelled out into counties (s)'Islur), administered by sheriffs (sislumadr) appointed by the king. A royal court took the place of the Althing courts; the local business was carried out by the (hreppst jori) bailiff, a subordinate of the sheriff ; and the go orb things, quarter-courts, trial by jury, etc., were swept away by these inno vations. The power of the crown was increased by the confisca tion of the great Sturlung estates, which were underleased to farmers, while the early falling off of the Norse trade threatened to deprive the island of the means of existence ; for the great epidemics and eruptions of the 14th century had gravely attacked its pastoral wealth and ruined much of its pasture and fishery.
The Reformation in Iceland wakened men's minds, but it left their circumstances little changed. When it was accomplished, the little knot of able men who came to the front did much in pre serving the records of the past, while Odd and Hallgrim exhibit the noblest impulses of their time. The Hanse trade replaced the English for the worse; and the Danish monopoly which succeeded it when the Danish kings began to act again with vigour was still less profitable. The subservient Lutheran clergy became the most powerful class in the island, while the system of under leasing at rackrent and short lease with unsecured tenant right extended over at least a quarter of the better land.
A new plague, that of the English, Gascon and Algerine pirates, at the close of the i6th century and opening of the 17th, caused widespread panic and some devastation in 1579, 1613-16 and 1627. But the i8th century is the most gloomy in Iceland's annals. Smallpox, famine, sheep disease and the eruptions of 1765 and 1783 follow each other in terrible succession. Against such visitations, which reduced the population by about a fourth, little could be done. The few literary men, whose work was done and whose books were published abroad, were only concerned with the past, and Jon Vidalin is the one man of mark, beside Eggert Olafsson, who worked and wrote for his own generation.
Gradually the ideas which were agitating Europe spread through Scandinavia into Iceland, and its claims were more respectfully listened to. The continental system, which, by its leading to the blockade of Denmark, threatened to starve Iceland, was neutral ized by special action of the British government. Trade and fishery grew a little brisker, and at length the turn came.
The rationalistic movement, headed by Magnus Stephenson, a patriotic, narrow-minded lawyer, did little good as far as church reform went, but was accompanied by a more successful effort to educate the people. Newspapers and periodicals were published, and the very stir which the ecclesiastical disputes encouraged did good. In the year 1789 trade was given free to all subjects of the Danish King, and in 1854 free trade for all nations was adopted. The Althingi, which had been held at Thingvellir every year from 93o up to 1798, was restored in Reykjavik in the year 1843, though given for the time being only consultative power. After 3o years' struggle under the able leadership of the great statesman and scholar Jon Sigurdsson (which see), the Icelanders at last secured their own constitution in 1874, under which legis lative power was given to the Icelandic Althingi conjointly with the King in all so-called local concerns. The same year a special ministry for Iceland was created in Copenhagen. In 1903 further modifications of the constitution were granted, which provided that a minister for Iceland should reside in Reykjavik; he should be capable of writing and speaking the Icelandic language. But the struggle for independence still continued until Iceland at last in the year 1918 was recognized as a separate kingdom with un limited sovereignty of its own but with a common king in Denmark (q.v.).