Emmanuel

EMMANUEL) ; (b) viii. C. 734 B.C., and vv. 5-10 and 11-15 all of the same period. An epilogue of uncertain date follows in vv. 16-18. This is an important section which seems to have been written down when the failure of the prophetic addresses contained in vii. 1-8, 15, had become evident. The Prophet now solemnly consigns "the testimony" to an inner circle of disciples.

The final section culminates in the description of the Messianic King (viii. i8—ix. 6). The text of the opening verses seems to have been much edited, in fact rewritten to form an introduction to what follows. The grand picture of the Messianic King given in ix. 1-6 is probably from Isaiah's hands, though some critics have denied this. The date of the Messianic passage is uncertain; perhaps it may be assigned to the youthful period of Isaiah's life, when he despaired of the Davidic House as represented by Ahaz (contrast xi. 1-9). The section that follows ix. 4, to which should be attached v. 26-30 may be dated about 735 B.C. It is an artistically constructed poem with a refrain and may be entitled "Yahweh's Outstretched Hand." It is mainly directed against north Israel and is a splendid example of Isaiah's poetical genius. A collection of oracles against Assyria with a Messianic appendix follows in Chapter x. 5–xi. 16. The Messianic section forms an appropriate conclusion. The Isaianic material here is fragmentary in character and has been edited to a certain extent by later hands. The general date of the fragments appears to be between 711 and 701 B.C. The date of the Messianic appendices xl. 1-9 and io–i6 is uncertain, but vv. 1-9 may be Isaianic while o-16 probably belong to a later age ; xl. 1-9 form perhaps the grandest of all the Messianic passages of the O.T. Its wonderful picture of the Golden Age marked by universal peace and its serene outlook on a transformed world are worthy of Isaiah. These features reflect the serenity of old age. Isaiah probably composed the passage towards the end of his life : notice the prophet's revived hope in the Davidic dynasty. Chapter xii. (probably post-exilic) forms the lyrical epilogue to the first complete Isaianic collection em bodied in chapters ii.–xii. Chapter xii. is largely composed of rem iniscences of the Psalter.

Book 2 forms an intermediate collection of oracles mainly concerning foreign nations, chapters xiii.–xxiii. The bulk of this section consists of ten "oracles" (burdens) ; and interspersed among these are four passages without titles which undoubtedly come from Isaiah's hand, viz. (a) xiv. 24-27 (b) xvii. 12-14 (c) Chapter xviii. and (d) Chapter xx. Of the ten oracles Chapter xvii. I-6,9-11, and xxii. 1-8,12-14, may be assigned with confi dence to Isaiah, while chapter xv. to xvi. 12 may be an older prophecy adopted by Isaiah and re-affirmed in a special postscript (Chapter xvi. 13-14). The only "oracles" which bear no relation to Isaiah or his age are Chapter xiii. 2–xiv. 23 against Babylon, which was probably composed during the Exile ; chapter xix. against Egypt, Chapter xxi. and Chapter xxiii. Not improbably this collection in its original form, consisting of ten oracles had an independent existence. The editor of the complete Isaianic c Alec tion took over this book which contained a genuine Isaianic ele ment by inserting the four passages mentioned above and then incorporated the whole into the collected form of Isaiah's prophe cies. It should be noted that it occupies in the complete book a similar position to corresponding groups of oracles in Ezekiel (Chapters xxv.–xxxii.) and Jeremiah (according to the LXX arrangement). Probably this editor is responsible for the heading, chapter xiii. 1, or at least for the words which Isaiah Ben Amoz saw. The poem on the Fall of Babylon consists of (a) a prophecy directed against Babylon xiii. 2-22 and (b) a triumphal ode on the downfall of the oppressive power, xiv. (4b)-21. This latter is certainly one of the finest compositions in the O.T. The date of composition probably be longs to the latter years of the Exile and therefore is more or less contemporary with Deutero-Isaiah. Note the contrast in tone between this oracle and that of Chapter xxi. Chapter xvii.

containing an oracle about Ephraim and Syria, may be dated about 735 B.C. and the second of the appended Isaianic fragments, Chap ter xvii. 12-14, about 702 B.C. This is a very fine piece of writing. The third of the appended fragments, containing an address to the Ethiopian Ambassadors, may be dated about the same time (Chapter xviii.). Chapter xix., an oracle about the fall of Egypt, seems to be of composite origin, vv. 1-15 perhaps may be dated between 528 and 485 B.C., while the remarkable verses, 16-25, forming an appendix, seem to belong to a later date still. Note the broad universalistic spirit of the passage which can hardly belong to an earlier time than the Greek period. Sellin, however, takes a different view. He dates vv. 1-17 prior to 663 B.C., and even vv. 18-25 he thinks are pre-Exilic. Chapter xx. contains the fourth of the appended Isaianic pieces. It may perhaps be dated about 711 B.C. in the reign of Sargon. The words translated Egypt (Misraim) and Ethiopia (Cush) may however be referred to a different provenance, if Winckler can be followed in assuming the existence of a Musri and Cush in north Arabia : it is possible that these terms have been confused with Egypt and Ethiopia in this chapter and occasionally elsewhere in the O.T. Chapter xxi. 1–io containing a vision of the fall of Babylon may be dated about the end of the Exile. It is followed by two fragmentary oracles on Edom, and Kedar, and has appended to it an Isaianic frag ment xxi. 16-17 which may be dated about 711 B.C. Chapter xxii. 1-14, an oracle on the Valley of Vision, may be dated about 7o1 B.C. Appended to this oracle is an interesting political invective directed against Shebna with a later appendix (Chapter xxii. 15 sqq.). The final chapter of this Section Chapter xxiii. deals in its present form with the Fall of Tyre and perhaps with the siege which the prophecy has in view is the one conducted by Nebuchad nezzar 586-573 B.C. (vv. 13 and 15-18 may be post Exilic addi tions). Duhm has proposed a brilliant solution by slightly altering the text in 8 and substituting Sidon for Tyre (Sidon is mentioned in vv. 2,4 and 12). The reference will then be to the devastation of Sidon by Artaxerxes III. A later editor again altered it so as to make it refer to the siege of Tyre by Alexander the Great. Book iii. contains the third collection of Isaianic prophecies dealing mainly with the deliverance of Jerusalem, with an eschatological preface and appendix. The centre of this group of chapters is largely composed of material from Isaiah's hand dating apparently from the crisis of Sennacherib's invasion in 7o1 B.C. To the post exilic editor who combined this collection with the two preceding books, the dominating interest was eschatological.

The invasion of Sennacherib was invested with an eschatological significance, and was "regarded as typical of the last great attempt to extinguish the people of Yahweh" at the end of the age. This editor will also have been responsible for prefixing the eschato logical preface (chs. xxiv.–xxvii.) and affixing the eschatological appendix (chs. xxxiv.–xxxv.) to the central group.

The third collection thus falls into three main parts, viz., I. Eschatological Preface (Chs. xxiv.–xxvii.). II. Prophecies dealing mainly with the Deliverance of Jerusalem (Chs. xxviii.–xxxiii.). III. Eschatological Appendix (Chs. xxxiv.–xxxv.). Chapters xxiv.–xxvii. are characterized by certain remarkable features. When the lyrical passages or songs are taken away there emerges a uniform apocalypse. The songs in question are (a) xxv. 1-5 (commemorating the destruction of a strong city) ; (b) xxv. 9-1I (the taunt song on Moab) ; (c) xxvi. 1-19 (a poetical medita tion) ; and (d) the song in xxvii. 2-5. The subject of the main apocalyptic section is a great catastrophe which convulses the entire world. A picture of world-wide desolation is drawn in vivid colours. This is followed by a description of the divine judgment on the evil powers (heavenly and earthly) and of Yah weh's enthronement on Mount Zion (Ch. xxiv.). Finally the "Coronation festival"—" a feast of fat things for all peoples"— is described (xxv. 6-8). The date of this section is hard to deter mine. The earliest assignable date is in the reign of Artaxerxes Ochus and probably the limits are 350-330 B.C. A number of distinguished scholars, however, date these compositions late in the Maccabean period, but on insecure grounds. The doctrinal importance of the chapters is considerable. Thus ch. xxvi. 19 con tains perhaps the first clear allusion to the doctrine of the resur rection; cf. the oracles contained in chapters xxviii.–xxxiii. Doubts have been raised as to the Isaianic character of xxviii. 23-29, a little poem in the style of the Wisdom literature which may well be Isaiah's. Ch. xxix. 17-24 is almost certainly post-exilic (the humble and needy of v. 19 are the oppressed pious so often men tioned in the Psalms). Ch. xxx. 18-26 also post-exilic. Ch. xxx. 27-33 doubtfully Isaianic, perhaps post-exilic. Chapters xxxii. xxxiii. contain a description of the renovated state in the Messianic age and form a contrast with preceding chapters especially as re gards the upper classes. With the exception of vv. 6-8 Chapter xxxii. might have been written by Isaiah. If so, with chapter xxxiii., it must be a product of the prophet's old age. Though the subject of chapter xxxiii. is undoubtedly the deliverance of Jeru salem from Sennacherib it is highly improbable that the chapter is a composition by Isaiah. It seems rather to be a sort of liturgi

cal meditation by a post-exilic poet on the deliverance of Jeru salem. It is in fact a composition parallel to xxvi. 1-19 (cf. xxxvii. 22-32, also post-exilic). Sellin, however, warmly defends the Isaianic character of the passage, as well as of the previous chap ters xxxiv.–xxxv., probably written by the same hand to form the eschatological appendix to the preceding group. Edom figures prominently in xxxiv. ; but the apocalyptic character of the pas sage is not modified by this fact—Edom in fact became a symboli cal name for the oppressive world-power. The earliest possible date of composition would be about 40o B.C.

A further appendix to the Isaianic collection ending at Chapter xxxiii. is contained in Chapters xxxvi.–xxxix. These chapters which are mainly narrative in character have been excerpted from the Book of Kings. They correspond to 2 Kings xviii. 8–xx. 19. The only divergencies are (a) the omission in the Isaiah text of the section contained in 2 Kings xviii. 14-16 and (b) the insertion in the Isaiah text of Hezekiah's psalm of thanksgiving Is. xxxviii. 9-20, apparently a late post-exilic composition. See further HEZEKIAH.

The Deutero-Isaiah.

With Chapter xl. a new section of the book of Isaiah begins. Here the background is entirely different from that of the earlier chapters contained in part 1. The oppressive world-power is no longer Assyria but Babylon. The Exile is not so much predicted as pre-supposed. The chapters are the work of a great lyrical poet who sees everything through a sort of golden haze. Chapters xl.–xlviii., apart from some small interpolations, are the work of this writer who apparently com posed them c. 538 B.C., i.e., after Cyrus had appeared on the scene, but before his capture of Babylon. Theologically the chapters are of great importance, insisting as they do on the unique character of Yahweh who is the sole God—there is but one God Yahweh and Israel is his prophet. The chapters were apparently written in Babylonia. Chapters xlix.-1v., which by a majority of critics are ascribed to "Deutero-Isaiah" (style and phraseology are prac tically the same), are distinguished from the preceding chapters by the disappearance from them of the themes so prominent in the earlier chapters. Cyrus is no longer referred to. The Exodus from Babylon is no longer insisted upon. The future glory of Zion-Jerusalem is prominently dwelt upon, and the gathering in of the exiles scattered throughout the world is described. Possibly these chapters were composed, as Cornill suggests, "under the immediate impression produced by the issue of the edict in which Cyrus gave permission to the exiles to return home." It is important to note Sellin's reminder that the whole work of Deutero-Isaiah is eschatological. "With the victory of Cyrus there dawns for him those last times which for centuries had been the object of a burning hope. By this everything is to be explained— the miraculous march through the wilderness, the picture of the New Jerusalem, the conversion of the heathen and the overthrow of the world-power" (cf. also xlix. 26: li. 6 sqq.). It has been commonly assumed that the prophecies of Deutero-Isaiah were circulated by this author in written form ; but recently the view that the discourses were spoken orally at different times (perhaps in some place where the exiles met) has gained ground.

Trito-Isaiah.

With Ch. lvi. an entirely new section of the Book begins. Here everything breathes a different atmosphere. Zion's felicity—the day of longed-for salvation—has not yet dawned. But the obstacle is no longer Babylon, but godless mem bers of the Jerusalem community and heretics. There is here no question of a Return—a new Exodus. The Jews are settled in the Holy Land; Jerusalem is no longer in ruins, but has a settled population ; the Temple has been re-built. But matters are not well with the restored community. There are grave symptoms of internal weakness. Social conditions are unsatisfactory; the rich oppress the poor. The old Israelitish population of the land (in Judaea and Samaria) is unwilling to submit to the "yoke of the Law" and threatens to build a rival Temple. The chapters form a distinct group by themselves, though the various items are strung rather loosely together. They were evidently written at a critical time, when it was all-important to strengthen the faith of the strict, religious party by kindling hope among them in the coming salvation. The godless are to be brought into judgment, and redress is to come for the pious followed by the glorification of the Holy City.

Apart from some inconsiderable additions the chapters are regarded by many modern scholars, including Duhm and Marti, as having emanated from one author, who is styled for the sake of convenience the "Trito-Isaiah." He wrote in the middle of the fifth century, apparently (c. 450 B.c.), a few years before the arrival of Nehemiah in Jerusalem.

There are certain difficulties about the hypothesis of Trito Isaiah which have been well summarized by Sellin, who points out that the themes which are prominent in the time of Malachi and Nehemiah are absent from these chapters. Moreover, there are two, if not three, passages which imply that the Temple was not in existence at the time when the author wrote (cf . lxiii. 18; lxiv.

8 sq.; and lxvi. 1-5). Possibly the first two of these passages are late interpolations, while the third does not necessarily imply the non-existence of the Jerusalem Temple. If these chapters are not a literary unity the best alternative view as to their origin is perhaps the following : a post-Exilic editor taking a section of writing which belonged to Deutero-Isaiah, viz., Chapters lx.–lxii., combined this, "with the work of a Jerusalemite prophet of the period between 586 and 52o" (Sellin) and enlarged it with addi tions of his own.

It is impossible here to do more than refer to the so-called "Servant Songs" about which a whole literature has grown up (xlii. 1-4; xlix. 1-6; 1.4-9; lii. 12). Is the servant here a collective term for the true Israel, or does it stand for an indi vidual and if so for whom ? The commonly accepted view has been some form or other of the first or collective interpretation (see J. Skinner, The Cambridge Bible ad loc.) ; but recently several scholars have adopted the individualistic interpretation; so especially Sellin who now identifies the servant with Moses, though he formerly thought of Jehoiachin. See further discussions by S. A. Cook, Camb. Ancient History, iii. 489 sqq., and H. Wheeler Robinson, The Cross and the Servant.

The Origin of the Book of Isaiah.

It may be inferred from Ecclus. xlviii. 20-25 that the book as we have it was then already in existence c. 200-180 B.C. ; further it seems probable that about 400 B.C. a Book of Isaiah was in .existence which contained chapters i.–xxxv. of our present book, to which chapters xxxvi.– xxxix. were added later. Between 400 and 200 B.C. the work of Deutero- and Trito-Isaiah which at first circulated independently, were added to the Isaianic collection. Not improbably the juxta position may have been due to Deutero-Isaiah himself, for there are linguistic points of contact between the later chapters and the work of Isaiah of Jerusalem. The earlier history of the Isaianic collection is wrapped in obscurity. It is clear that the prophet himself was primarily a preacher and delivered his discourses orally; they were written down only at a later stage. (Cf. the analogous case of Jeremiah, Jer. xxxvi.) Fragments of the prophet's discourses were no doubt carefully treasured by his disciples (cf. Is. viii. r6; xxx. 8). Then collections were formed and later still further collections, the whole being brought up to date by eschatological additions.

The Life and Activity of Isaiah.

The prophet Isaiah, the son of a certain Amoz, was the father of two sons who bore highly symbolical names, viz., Shear-Jashub ("a remnant shall return") and Mahar-shalal-hash-baz ("swift spoil, speedy prey"). The prophet's family probably belonged to the aristocracy of Jerusalem and may have had connections with the royal house. At any rate the prophet seems to have been able to enter the presence of the king at will (cf. Chapter vii.). His active career extended from about 738 B.C. (Cf. Is. vi. r) to at least 701 B.C. and probably later 690 B.C. ( ?). He may have been martyred under Manasseh as Jewish legend attests. The prophet lived through a succession of political crises connected with the intervention of Assyria in Western Asia, viz.: the Syro-Ephraimitish War 734 B.C. ; the fall of Samaria, 722 B.C. ; the siege of Ashdod by Sargon, 711 B.C. ; the death of Sargon, 705 B.C. ; and the invasion of Sen nacherib in 701 B.C. Isaiah has well been called "the prophet of Faith." He stands a sublime figure for faith in the supremacy of the spiritual over the earthly; for the potency of high ideas and ideals over brute force and power. To have combined such a lofty faith with practical statesmanship—for Isaiah was essentially a man of action—is an achievement worthy of the greatest men of any age.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Cheyne, Introduction to the Book of Isaiah (1898) ; Commentaries by Duhm, Marti, G. A. Smith, Box, Skinner; S. R. Driver, Isaiah His life and times (1888). Further Literature in Sellin, Introduction to the Old Testament (1923). (G. H. B.)