Jamaica

JAMAICA, the largest island in the British West Indies. It lies about 8o m. S. of the eastern extremity of Cuba, between 17° 43' and 18° 32' N. and 76° 1o' and 78° 20' W., is 144 m. long, so m. in extreme breadth and has an area of 4,207 sq.m. A mountainous backbone runs through the island from east to west, broken by pressure into a series of ridges running diag onally N.W. and S.E. The highest of these ranges is towards the east end of the island and is called the Blue mountains. They trend west by north, culminating in Blue Mountain Peak (7,360 ft.) and are crossed by five passes at altitudes varying from 3,00o to 4,00o feet. Two-thirds of the island are oc cupied by a plateau of deep-sea white limestone, forming a region of great beauty broken by innumerable hills, valleys, "cockpits" and sink-holes, and covered with luxuriant vegetation. These uplands usually terminate in steep slopes or bluffs, sep arated from the sea, in most cases, by a strip of level land. On the south coast, especially, these plains are often extensive, the Liguanea plain, on which Kingston and Spanish Town stand, having an area of 200 sq.m. More than a hundred rivers and streams find their way to the sea, with numerous tributaries which issue from every ravine in the mountains. These streams are mostly not navigable, and in times of flood become violent torrents. Some of the larger rivers have laid down alluvial plains in their lower valleys and considerable deltas at their mouths. The Black river threads a vast morass, once the sea bed, and is navigable by small craft for about 3o m. The Salt river and the Cabaritta, also in the south, are navigable by barges. Vestiges of intermittent volcanic action occur (including one truncated cone of basaltic lava), and there are several radio-active hot springs. Jamaica has 16 harbours, the chief of which are Port Morant, Kingston, Old Harbour, Lucea, Montego Bay, Falmouth, St. Ann's Bay, Port Maria and Port Antonio. Geology.—The greater part of Jamaica is bedded with Ter tiary deposits, but in the Blue mountains and some of the other ranges older rocks emerge. The foundation of the island is composed of stratified shales and conglomerates, with tuffs and other volcanic rocks and occasional bands of marine limestone. The limestones contain Upper Cretaceous fossils, and the whole series has been heavily folded. Upon this foundation rests un conformably a series of marls and limestones of Eocene and early Oligocene age. Some of the limestones are composed of Foraminifera, together with Radiolaria, and indicate a sub sidence to great depths, whilst the higher peaks of the island still remained above the sea. Towards the middle of the Oligo cene period, when the folding pressure took place, the island was lifted far above its present level and was probably con nected with the rest of the Greater Antilles and perhaps with the American mainland also. In the same period plutonic rocks of various kinds were intruded into the deposits already formed, and in some cases produced considerable metamorphism. Dur ing the Miocene and Pliocene periods the island again sank, but never to the depths which it reached in the Eocene period. The deposits formed in this period were shallow-water conglom erates, marls and limestones, with Mollusca, Brachiopoda, corals, etc. Finally, a series of successive small upliftings, less than 500 ft. in the aggregate, raised the island to its present level. The terraces which mark the successive stages in this elevation are well shown near Montego bay. The remarkable cavities of the Cockpit country and the closed basins of various rivers have been formed by the solution of the white limestone layer resting upon insoluble rocks. The island produces a great variety of marbles, porphyrites, granite and ochres. Traces of gold have been found associated with some of the oxidized copper ores (blue and green carbonates) in the Clarendon mines. Copper ores are widely diffused and lead and cobalt are found, but do not pay to work. Manganese iron ores and a form of arsenic occur.

Climate.

The climate is one of the island's chief attractions. Near the coast it is warm and humid, tempered by sea breezes, but in the uplands is delightfully mild and equable. At Kingston the temperature ranges from 70.7° to 87.8° F, and this is gen erally the average of all the low-lying coast land. At Hill Gardens in the Blue mountains, 4,907 f t. above the sea, it varies from 57.5° to 68.5°. The vapours from the rivers and the ocean gen erate in the upper regions clouds saturated with moisture which there maintain vegetation belonging to a colder climate. Dur ing the rainy seasons the accumulation of these vapours causes a general coolness and occasional heavy showers, and sometimes destructive floods. These seasons, in May and October, last for about three weeks, although, as a rule, no month is quite without rain. The fall varies greatly; while the annual average for the island is 66.3 in., at Kingston it is 32.6 in., at Hill Gardens 105.5 in., and at some places in the north-east exceeds 200 in. The climate of the Santa Cruz mountains is very favourable to sufferers from tubercular and rheumatic diseases. Excepting near morasses and lagoons, the island is very healthy, and yellow fever, once prevalent, is extinct. In the early part of the 19th century, hurricanes often devastated Jamaica, but now, though they frequently pass to the N.E. and S.W. they more rarely strike the island itself.

Flora.

The flora is remarkable, showing types from North, Central and South America, with a few European forms, be sides the common plants found everywhere in the tropics. Of flowering plants, 2,18o distinct species have been identified, and of ferns 450 species, several of both being indigenous. This abundance may be to some extent accounted for by differences of altitude, temperature and humidity. There are many beauti ful flowers, such as the aloe, the yucca, the datura and the mountain pride; and the cactus tribe is well represented. The sensitive plant is a pest in pastures. There are pretty wild orchids. Though most of the ancient forests have been cut or destroyed, and the existing woodlands are of secondary growth, there is still much useful timber: cedar and mahoe being the most important. Fine cabinet-making woods are mahogany, yucca, rosewood, satin wood, lignum vitae and ebony. Lance wood spars and hardwoods suitable for railway ties are cut in great quantities. Logwood is a very important crop, grown in lowland pastures. This wood is exported, but the making of log wood extract for dye is a valuable industry. Fustic is used for khaki dye. A very conspicuous but useless tree is the huge silk-cotton tree (Ceiba Bombax). Pimento (allspice) is indig enous. Bamboo is plentiful. Several species of palm abound —the mountain cabbage, the fan palm, screw palm and palmetto royal. There are large plantations of coco palms. Other notice able trees and plants are the mango, the breadfruit tree, the papaw, the lacebark tree, the guava and the castor oil plant. Eng lish vegetables grow in the hills. There is much cultivation of bananas, plantains, coffee, cocoa, yams, cassava, ochra, beans, pease, ginger, annatto and arrowroot. Maize and guinea-corn are grown and the guinea-grass, accidentally introduced in 1750, is very valuable for horses and cattle. Among the principal fruits are the orange, shaddock, lime, grape-fruit, pine-apple, mango, banana, grapes, melons, star-apple, avocado pear, breadfruit and tamarind.

Fauna.

There are fourteen sorts of Lampyridae or fireflies, besides the Elateridae or lantern beetles. There are no venomous serpents, but a few harmless snakes and many lizards. The land crab is highly reputed as a table delicacy. The scorpion and centipede, though poisonous, are not very dangerous. Ants, sand-flies and mosquitoes abound in the lowlands. There are 20 different song-birds, and 43 varieties of birds are believed to be peculiar to the island. The sea and the rivers swarm with fish. Turtles are plentiful, and the seal, the manatee and the crocodile are occasionally found. The coral reefs, with their varied polyps and anemones, the numerous alcyonarians and coral-dwelling animals are readily accessible to the student, and the island is also celebrated for the number of species of its land-shells.

People.

The population of the island was estimated in 1933 as 1,090,269. Jamaica is rich in traces of its former Arawak in habitants. Aboriginal petaloid celts and other implements, flat tened skulls and vessels are common. Images and drawings have been found in limestone caverns. Of the present inhabitants, according to the 1921 census less than 2 per cent were white, 18 per cent "coloured," i.e., of mixed race, and 77 per cent black: but among these there is probably in many cases some share of European descent. Coloured persons and negroes are found in all professions and occupations represented in the community, but leadership and initiative still remain predominantly with the white and lighter-coloured citizens. Most of the elementary school teachers of both sexes are black.

The capital, Kingston, stands on the south-east coast, and near it is the town of Port Royal. Spanish Town (pop. about 9,000), the former capital, is in the parish of St. Catherine, Middle sex, 11 m. by rail west of Kingston. After the transfer of the seat of government to Kingston, Spanish Town sank greatly in importance, but has revived as the centre of valuable banana and sugar cultivation in the irrigated Liguanea plain. In the cathedral many of the governors of the island are buried. A marble statue of Rodney commemorates his victory over the Count de Grasse off Dominica in 1782. Montego Bay (pop. 6,000), on the north west coast, is the second town on the island, and is a favourite bathing resort. Port Antonio (pop. 4,000) lies between two secure harbours on the north-east, and owes its prosperity mainly to the development of the trade in fruit, for which it is the chief place of shipment.

Industries.

Agricultural enterprise falls into two classes— planting and pen-keeping, i.e., the breeding of horses, mules, cattle and sheep. The chief products are in order of value of exports, bananas 40%, sugar and rum 20%, coffee 12%, pimento, coco nuts and copra, logwood and its extract, cocoa ginger, oranges and their oil, cigars, grape-fruit and honey.

The island contains about 120,000 head of cattle and 25,000 horses and mules. Motor carriage has diminished the importance of horse and mule breeding. The banana industry (export latterly exceeding 20 million bunches a year) is highly organized, both as regards the cultivation, much of it in large arable fields, and the transport and shipping of the fruit. There is a strong Government Department of Agriculture and Science, which co-operates with the Jamaica Agricultural Society, a very efficient institution, which directs the activities of 16 agricultural instructors, doing their work through contact with 26o branch agricultural societies, mostly composed of peasants. The board of management of the society meets monthly, with the Governor as president, to discuss agri cultural interests in all aspects. The Jamaica Imperial Associa tion and the Producers Association are valuable auxiliaries in the political and commercial spheres. In regard to productive agricul ture Jamaica is the most highly developed community in the British West Indies. The estates are ably managed, whilst there are about 140,00o peasant holdings of land valued at from £20 to Lioo, which largely feed the population, supply the local mar kets, produce fruit, coffee, spices, honey and other minor staples for export, and contribute to the labour supply of estates. Pro vision is made through a Government Land Bank for the purchase and cutting up of estates for small holders. The manufactures are few. In addition to the sugar and coffee estates there are cigar factories, tanneries, distilleries, breweries, electric light and gas works, iron foundries, potteries and factories of logwood ex tract, coconut oil, essential oils, ice, matches and mineral waters. Of the imports (valued £5,636,188 in 2925), about 45% are from the British Empire, 40% from the United States, which took about the same proportion of the exports (value, 1925, £3,935, 059). Jamaica was a signatory of the Canada-West Indies trade agreements of June 18, 1920 and July 6, 1925. Under the latter, Canada imposes a customs duty of so c. per bunch on foreign bananas, admits Jamaica bananas free and provides a fortnightly mail passenger and freight service with refrigeration for 70,00o bunches of bananas, alternating with a fortnightly freight service with refrigeration for so,000 bunches between Canadian ports and Kingston. At present the fruit industry is handled by five con cerns, of which all but one carry the fruit to America.

Under the Canada-West Indies agreement Jamaica sugar en joys the increased preference of $1.00 per ioo lb. on 96° sugar entering the Dominion. In the United Kingdom the preference on British colonial sugar was restored in 1925 to 3s. 80. per cwt., and an undertaking was given by Parliament that it would remain at that figure for so years. This has helped to establish confidence in the industry. The revenue averages about L2,000,000 p.a. (£866,000 from customs duties). Direct property and income taxes are levied. Of the expenditure (normally somewhat less than the revenue), the largest items are debt charges £273,600, public works, £315,160, constabulary £178,600, education, L 5 5, 600, medical services, £136,470.

There is a government savings bank at Kingston with branches throughout the island, and branches of Barclay's Bank, the Bank of Nova Scotia, the Canadian Bank of Commerce and the Royal Bank of Canada at Kingston and in most of the towns. There is

a system of Agricultural Loan Banks, under Government control, with an issued Share Capital of £70,602. The coins in circulation are British gold and silver, but not bronze, instead of which local nickel currency is used. United States gold is current. Notes of the various Banks are in circulation and a Government currency of £1 and io/– notes, which are legal tender. English weights and measures are used.

Communications.

There is frequent regular steamer com munication with England by the Elders and Fyffes fruit boats, also by the Harrison Leyland and Pacific Steam Navigation lines and the Royal Mail S.P. Co.: with the U.S.A. by the United Fruit Co., the Hamburg American Line and the Atlantic Fruit Co. ; with Canada by the Canadian Government Merchant Marine line and Pickford & Black's. Sailing "droghers" ply from port to port of the island. Jamaica has an excellent system of good motoring roads, subsidiary metalled roads and bridle paths; the main roads are controlled by the public works department, the parochial roads by the parish boards. The railway runs from Kingston in the south-east to Montego bay in the north-west with branches to Port Antonio, and to Ewarton and Frankfield in the interior of the island. Jamaica is included in the Imperial 12d. post, and there is almost daily mail communication with the United States and England. There is cable connection with the United States via Cuba, and with Halifax, Nova Scotia, via Ber muda. A new and improved wireless telegraphic station near Kingston was completed in 1927.

Administration.

The public administration is conducted by a Governor who bears the old Spanish title of Captain General, a Privy Council, of three public officers, ex-officio, and not more than eight nominated members, and a Legislative Council, com posed of the Governor, as President, five public officers ex-officio, nominated members not exceeding ten in number, and fourteen elected members, one for each parish of the island. The vote of nine elected members controls finance. The qualification for membership is residence in the parish or an income of LI5o a year arising from lands therein. The electors are all adult men and women occupying premises on which taxes of not less than 10/ a year are paid, or having personal property paying not less than a year in taxes or a salary or wages of not less than £5o a year, or paying a rent of not less than Do a year. There were, in 1921, 42,267 electors on the register. Local administration is carried on by elected parochial boards (Kingston and Saint An drew's being united, with a mayor and corporation), which deal with local roads, markets, public health, poor relief and water supplies. The revenues of parochial boards amount to about £350,000 a year. There is a small imperial garrison consisting of Royal Engineers, Royal Artillery, three infantry companies and the appropriate staff and auxiliary services. There is a local militia artillery company, and a corps of infantry volunteers.

Previous to 1870 the Church of England was established in Jamaica, but in that year a disestablishment act was passed which provided for gradual disendowment. It is still the most numerous body, and is presided over by the bishop of Jamaica. The Bap tists, Wesleyans, Presbyterians, Roman Catholics and Moravians are considerable communities. There is a Jewish synagogue at Kingston, and the Salvation Army has a branch on the island. The Church of England maintains a theological college, a dea conesses' home and an orphanage. The Baptists have a theo logical college, and the Roman Catholics support a training college for teachers, two industrial schools and two orphanages. Elementary education is maintained by Government grants. There are (1927) 118 Government schools, 193 Church of England, III Baptist, 74 Wesleyan, 57 Moravian, 126 of other denomina tions—total 679. The number of students amounts to 120,000; average attendance 75,00o. The excellent Mico Training college (endowed and receiving a Government capitation grant) provides male teachers, and Shortwood college and Bethlehem (Moravian) college for women. The Government maintains a continuation technical and commercial school in Kingston. The provision for secondary and higher education is very good and efficient : there being a number of endowed foundations in different parts of the island, supplemented elsewhere by Government and denomina tional colleges and high schools. The Government gives liberal annual scholarships (tenable for 3, 4 or 5 years) for boys and girls to maintain them at universities : and a Rhodes Scholarship of 1400 a year for 3 years is also awarded annually.

Jamaica was discovered by Columbus on May 3, 1494. He was subsequently stranded for 12 months on the north coast, in 1503-4. In 1509 Don Juan de Esquivel was appointed by Diego, Columbus's son, as governor, and from that date till 1655 the is land remained under Spanish rule. The Spaniards named it Sant' Jago. Its native Arawak name was Xaymaca, "Isle of Springs." Villa de la Vega (first called by the English Sant' Jago de la Vega and, later, Spanish Town), was founded in 1523 and was the capital till 1872. Sir Anthony Shirley, a British admiral plundered and burnt that town in 1596, but effected no occupation. Another raid was made in 1635, by Colonel Jackson. During the Spanish occupation the inoffensive Arawak inhabitants, with whom Las Casas said the island "abounded as an ant-hill with ants," were exterminated by oppression, and negro slaves were imported. The whole island was divided among eight noble Spanish families, who so discouraged immigration that when Jamaica was taken by the British the white and slave population together did not ex ceed 3.000. Cromwell attacked the empire of Spain in the West Indies, and Admirals Penn and Venables succeeded in capturing and holding Jamaica in 1655. The Spanish were completely ex pelled in 1658. Their slaves took to the mountains, and till the end of the 18th century the efforts of these Maroons, as they were called, to maintain their independence gave rise to repeated fighting. Jamaica continued to be governed by military authority until 1661, when Colonel D'Oyley was appointed captain-general and governor-in-chief with an executive council. He was suc ceeded next year by Lord Windsor, under whom a legislative assembly was established with power to make laws subject to dis allowance by the Crown. Jamaica soon became the chief resort of the buccaneers, who not infrequently united the profession of merchant or planter with that of pirate or privateer. By the Treaty of Madrid, 1670, the British title to the island was recog nized, and the buccaneers were suppressed. The Royal African Company was formed in 1672 with a monopoly of the slave trade, and from this time Jamaica was one of the greatest slave marts in the world. At this date there were in Jamaica 70 sugar works, 6o indigo works and 6o cacao works. An attempt was made in 1678 to impose on the island a yearly tribute to the Crown and to supersede the powers of the legislature. The privileges were restored in 1682; but not till 46 years later was the question of revenue settled, by a compromise by which Jamaica undertook to pay .f8,00o (afterwards reduced to L6,000) per annum to the Crown, provided that English statute laws were made binding in Jamaica.

In 1692 a severe earthquake destroyed the greater part of the town of Port Royal. Hurricanes occurred in 1712, 1714 and 1722, the last doing so much damage that the seat of commerce was transferred from Port Royal to Kingston.

The most important event during the later years of the 18th century was the threatened invasion by the French and Spanish in 1782, averted by the victory of Rodney and Hood off Do minica. The last attempt at invasion was made in 1806, when the French were defeated by Admiral Duckworth. When the slave trade was abolished (in 1807) the island was at the zenith of its prosperity; sugar, coffee, cocoa, pimento, ginger and indigo were being produced in large quantities, and it was the depot of a very lucrative trade with the Spanish Main. There were then 319,351 slaves in Jamaica. The anti-slavery agitation in Great Britain was paralleled in the island, and in 1831 some of the negroes re volted, believing that emancipation had been granted. They killed a number of whites and destroyed property valued at 1657,00o. Two years later the Emancipation Act was passed, and, subject to a short term of apprenticeship, 125,590 slaves were freed. Eman cipation crippled the planters. The British Government awarded them compensation at the rate of £19 per slave, but most of this compensation went into the hands of their creditors. They were left financially exhausted and with a scarcity of labour. The abo lition in 1846 of the tariff protection of colonial produce in the British market reduced the price of sugar by one-half and in many cases destroyed the profits of the already impoverished planter. Many estates, already heavily mortgaged, were aban doned, and the trade of the island was greatly diminished. Dis sensions between the executive, the legislature, and the home Government, as to the means of retrenching public expenditure, created much bitterness. Although some slight improvement marked the administration of Sir Charles Metcalfe and the earl of Elgin, when Indian immigration was introduced to redress the scarcity and irregularity of labour and the railway was opened, the improvement was not permanent. In 1865 Edward John Eyre became governor. The public finances were in great diffi culties and the colonial treasury showed a deficit. To meet this difficulty new taxes were imposed and from this and other causes of grievance (notably exclusion from land and maladministration of justice) discontent was rife among the negroes. On Oct. II, 1865, there was an outbreak at Morant bay and the chief magis trate of the parish and 18 other white persons were killed. The disturbance which followed filled the island with terror, and many excesses were committed on both sides. The assembly passed an act under which martial law was proclaimed, and subsequently one abrogating the constitution.

The action of Governor Eyre, in hanging G. W. Gordon, a lead ing spokesman of the popular discontents, and the severities with which the rising was punished, though generally applauded in the West Indies, caused much indignation in England, and he was re called. A prosecution was instituted against him, resulting in an elaborate exposition of martial law by Chief Justice Cockburn, but the jury threw out the bill and Eyre was discharged. He was succeeded in the government of Jamaica by Sir John Peter Grant. Crown colony government was established and Grant did a mag nificent work in reorganizing the affairs of the colony. He estab lished a constabulary on the lines of that of Ireland, reconstructed the judicial establishment, substituting stipendiary magistrates for the planter-justices, established a public medical service, a public works department and Government savings bank; im proved education and irrigated the fertile but drought-stricken plain between Spanish Town and Kingston. During his govern ment the planters were helped by the importation of Indian la bourers, and the fruit (banana) trade with America, which has restored the prosperity of the island, was started by Capt. A. W. Baker of Boston, U.S.A.

In 1884 the constitution of the legislature was altered by the introduction of nine elected members, whose number was in 1895 increased to fourteen.

On Jan. 14, 19o7, in violent earthquake visited Kingston. Al most every building n the capital and in Port Royal, and many in St. Andrews, were destroyed or seriously damaged. About Boo persons were killed and a large part of the city was burnt. On Jan. 17 assistance was brought by three American warships under Rear-Admiral Davis, who withdrew them on the 19th, owing to a misunderstanding with the governor of the island, Sir Alexander Swettenham, on the subject of the landing of marines from the vessels to help in preserving order. The incident caused consider able sensation, and led to Sir A. Swettenham's resignation in the following March. The earthquake and fire afforded the oppor tunity of considerably improving Kingston, and under the govern ment of Sir Sydney (Lord) Olivier the scattered public offices were reconstructed in two blocks flanking a planted square on the finest street of the city.

During the World War of 1914-18, 25o officers and 11,042 non commissioned officers and men, for the British West India Regi ment, and 381 officers for other regiments went overseas from Jamaica. Eighty-two commissioned officers connected with Ja maica lost their lives and 1,019 non-commissioned officers and men.

See Bryan Edwards, History of the West Indies (5809; appendix, 1819) ; P. H. Gosse, Journal of a Naturalist in Jamaica (1851) ; Jamaica Handbook (annual) ; F. Cundall, Bibliotheca Jamaicensis (Kingston, 1895, 1902, 1908) ; Studies in Jamaica History (1900) ; Historic Jamaica (1915) ; Jamaica under the Spaniards (T919) ; Ja maica in 1924; Jamaica's part in the Great War; W. J. Gardner, His tory of Jamaica (1909). For geology, see R. T. Hill, "The Geology and Physical Geography of Jamaica," Bull. Mus. Com. Zool. Harvard, xxxiv. (1899). (0.)