JAVA, fourth in area but most important of the islands of the Malay Archipelago which constitute the Dutch East Indies, belonging to the Netherlands, is separated from Sumatra on the west by the Sunda strait, 14-50 m. wide, and from Bali on the east, by Bali strait, II m. wide in the north. It is 622 m. long and 121 m. wide in greatest dimensions, and its area without the island of Madura (q.v.) is 48,504 sq.m. Its population (1930) was 41,719,524, including that of Madura (1,962,611 in 1930), two and a half times that of the remaining islands, which have more than thirteen times the area of Java. It lies between 5° 52' and 8° 47' S. and 105° 12' and 35' E.
Java has a northwest monsoon from December to March, bring ing much rain and cloud especially in the north, while from April to October it has a southeast monsoon bringing some rain to the south coast but making August the sunniest month at Batavia (51.6% of possible sunlight). Strong cyclones and typhoons are unknown but afternoon thunderstorms are common in the moun tains and at night during the wet northwest monsoon. Batavia averages 122 thunderstorms a year. The northwest mom Son ex tends only to about 6,000 ft.; above this the southeast wind always blows and gives a serene climate.
Rainfall varies and reaches 327 in. at Kranggan in Banyumas, while Sirah Kuchong (3,413 ft.), in Kediri, once had 398.11 in. in one year. January is usually the most rainy month. Batavia averages 71.31, Cheribon 90.38, Banyuwangi 56.58, Buitenzorg 168.63, Bandung (2,346 ft.) 74.7o, Chilachap (south coast) 152.25, Kalisat (3,609 ft.) 62.40 and Assembagus, the driest station, 35 inches. The region of maximum rainfall stretches from Mt. Cherimaj in Cheribon to Banyuwangi, southwest Ban tam and Batavia. Periods of drought last from 12 to 53 days in the west, and 14 to 116 in the east, but a drought at Situbondo lasted 227 days.
The green peacock (Pavo muticus) is found in Java. A rare and beautiful jungle fowl (Gallus varies) is found here and also Gallus gallus, the red jungle fowl. The bird population includes 400 species; snipe and other water fowl abound and weaver-birds and rice-birds prey upon the crops. Only two parrots occur. The swift (Collocalia) which produces the edible bird's nest is found along the coast. Two trogons, two blue-ground thrushes, a pink headed dove, a black and crimson oriole, and three broad-tailed ground pigeons belong to Java. Large crocodiles (C. porosus) are common and lizards swarm; the monitors Varanus salvator (minyawak) and V. bivitatus (beawak) are large enough to attack poultry. Snakes, numbering more than 'co species, in clude the great python (Python reticulatus) reverenced because it destroys field mice, the cobra and an adder.
Seas, rivers and ponds swarm with gorgeously coloured fish which form a large element in the food supply. Crabs, lobsters and crayfish, are common. Over 500 species of butterflies occur here and moths, beetles, mosquitoes, ants, termites, hornets, are common. Scorpions and centipedes are troublesome and spiders abound ; one spider snares small birds.
There are four plant zones. From sea level to 1,750 feet is found the hot wet forest zone, the most extensive of the four; some trees such as Barringtonia speciosa and Terminilia catappa grow only near the sea, epiphytic plants are uncommon, and fleshy leaved plants abound on salty soil. A short distance inland palms begin and the low hills are covered with alang-alang, glaga, bam boo and acacia. Where limestone is found in the hills, figs, acacias, sterculias, rattans, pepper vines and jasmine are common. Acacia forms fine woods between 400 and 1,300 feet, teak prefers less calciferous soil and thrives between 700 and 2,000 ft., form ing one-third of the government forests. In this zone rubber, rice, cotton, sugar-cane, coconut palms, and tobacco are grown and there are cattle pastures.
Higher up, in the second zone, are great forests with brilliantly flowering epiphytes, notably orchids, as well as ferns and fungi, growing on the tree trunks. Figs, magnolias, and anonaceous trees are general while rasamala grows 130 ft. high in Mid Java : casuarina and bamboo are found in the east. The temperature of the second zone is It has a much narrower range of species and its cultivated plants include tea, cinchona, coffee, maize and sugar palm. Above the 3,00o foot level strawberries, violets and herbaceous com posites occur.
In the third zone (tempera ture are swamps and lakes with rich grassy shores, and azaleas and rhododendrons abound, also oaks, chestnuts, maples and laurels ; a species of elm (anggrang) is found on Mounts Merapi and Kelut. Many trees are covered with mosses and lichens. Crowfoots, horse tails, meadow rue, whortleber ries, (Vaccinium), raspberries and blackberries abound. In the Tengger country there is some planting of maize, rye and to bacco, and of European vege tables.
On about 20 peaks, forming the fourth zone, conditions are Alpine and frosts occur. Iron wood, myrtle, elder, rhododen dron, barberry, guelder rose, honeysuckle, heather and the so called Javanese edelweiss (Anaplialis javanica) are common. The royal cowslip (Prima imperialis) is said to grow only on the sum mit of Pangerango, which also possesses wood-sorrel, sow-thistle, chickweed, lily of the valley, foxglove, lobelia, yew and annual grasses.
Teak is the chief tree economically exploited and since has been a state monopoly. During 1926 about 202,000 cubic metres of commercial teak was felled, mainly for local use. Rat tan creepers are becoming important, notably for binding wicker chairs. There is a forestry school and experimental station and the service now controls all forests.
Towns.—Batavia (q.v.) is the capital, pop. On the line to Buitenzorg (q.v.) is Depok, a missionary settlement, and in the adjacent residency of Bantam (q.v.) are Tangerang on the river Sadan, and Serang pop. (1930) 11,163 the capital of Bantam on the coast of the Sunda strait. Merak is a small post for steamer service to Sumatra; Anjer was once an important port of call and capital of Bantam. Pandeglang (south of Serang) has an Assistant Resident and a government rest house. Labuan is a fishing port and bathing resort with Pasuruan (with a govern ment rest house) to the north and Chichurup (also with a rest house) and other resorts to north and south. Southwest Bantam is without towns of interest but Rangkas Betung, headquarters of an Assistant Resident, is a rubber centre and has medicinal hot springs. On the main line from Batavia to Bandung are the fol lowing: Krawang (18,227) with residency, a rice centre; Chi kampek, junction for Cheribon, Purwakarta (15,141) with an Assistant Resident ; Bandung (q.v.) among the mountains is the capital of the Preanger Regencies and has a population of 166,815.
Another line into the Preanger Regencies (q.v.) reaches Suka bumi (34,191, incl. 2,259 Europeans and Eurasians), the seat of an Assistant Resident, 2,300 feet above sea and near Wijnkoop's Bay, a coastal resort, with the fine falls of Chi Burum (descent 429 feet), the hot springs or geysers of Chisolok, and the craters of Salak and Pangerango. Chandjur was formerly the capital of the Regencies but now has an Assistant Resident; near it the hill resort of Sindanglaya has above it the pass of Punchak (4,583 feet), the boundary between the Preangers and Batavia Residency and a famous view point. Near by are Chipanas, with the Gov ernor General's summer house, and Chibodas (4,700 feet) with experimental gardens and primeval forest.
East of Bandung a line goes to Garut (q.v.) which has a popu lation of 24,219. Sumedang (12,448) on the road to Cheribon has lost importance since the railway came. Tasikmalaya (25,605) with an Assistant Resident is in southeast Preanger, and makes wicker work, mats, etc. It is a road station with hotels near lovely scenery. Farther east is Banjar, an important rubber centre.
Northeast of the Preangers is Cheribon (54,079; q.v.) with a Resident, while 23 m. inland from Cheribon is the hill resort of Kuningan (2,200 feet), and on the coast the bathing station of Linga Jati. Thirty miles northwest of Cheribon is the river port of Indramayu (21,190) the capital of a Residency (pop. 953,816) with many Chinese, and with trade in rice. A steam tramway runs from Cheribon along the coast to Samarang (217,796; q.v.), passing through Brebes (13,707), Tegal (43,015) the seat of an Assistant Resident, with sugar trade, and Pekalongan (65,982, incl. 891 Europeans and Eurasians) capital of a residency and a sugar port. Pekalongan and Batang have batik industry. Kendal (13,804), 18 m. west of Samarang, has an old fort and a Prot estant church.
A line from Batavia runs south from the Pekalongan and Samarang Residencies through those of Kedu (q.v.) and Ban yumas to Jokjakarta (136,649; q.v.). Banyumas (6,686) is the seat of a Resident and Chilachap (28,309) a fine port (q.v.). A steam tramway runs from Maos junction to Wonosobo (10,701; q.v.), capital of the Dieng plateau. Magelang (52,944 incl. 4,169 Europeans and Eurasians) stands at 1,246 ft. above sea level and is the capital of Kedu. It has a steam tramway to the military centre of Parakan, from which (or from Jokjakarta) Barabudur can be visited. Muntilan, between Magelang and Jokjakarta, has many Chinese, is an important market and is near Barabudur and Mendut (see Archaeology). Between Maos and Jokjakarta is Krakal with hot springs for rheumatic ailments and skin troubles. On a branch line is Purwareja (24.645, incl. 858 Euro peans and Eurasians) with an Assistant Resident. In the Jokja karta residency lie Prambanan (see Archaeology) and Kreteg, with the bathing station of Parang Tritis, whence the line runs to Surakarta (165484; q.v.). Madiun (q.v.), (41,872 incl. 1,681 Europeans and Eurasians) is the seat of a Resident, a railway .
and irrigation centre, and 3o m. south on a tramway is Ponorogo (21,680) with an important native market. The railway crosses from Madiun into the Kediri residency where Kertosono has an Assistant Resident and sugar factories, and Kediri (48,567, incl. 1,028 Europeans and Eurasians) is a sugar centre on the navigable Brantas. From Kertosono a line runs to Surabaya (341,675, q.v.), the chief commercial port of Java and a naval station, passing by sugar centres, and ruins that are said to be those of Majapahit (see Archaeology). A branch of the line Surabaya-Samarang passes Ambarawa (19,480, incl. 674 Europeans and Eurasians), 5,700 feet above sea level, originally a military settlement and still possessing a fortress. To the southeast is Salatiga (24,274, incl. 1,977 Europeans and Eurasians) at 1,900 feet, a favourite health resort for Samarang people and now a test station for tea seeds. Merbabu, II m. farther on, is at the 4,000 feet level and is a health resort. Demak, northeast of Samarang, grows fruit (blimb ing) ; it is one of the first irrigation centres, and was the seat of Raden Pateh (15th cent.) who built a temple with a pillar sup posedly raised by superhuman skill, making the place very sacred. Kudus, (54,524, incl. over 4,000 Chinese) trades in cloths, batiks, kapok, copra and cattle. To the north lies Japara, chief port of Mataram in the 17th century and an early Dutch station. Pati Rembang (13,791) a port and capital of a Residency, Blora (18,451), Chepu, centre of the mineral oil industry, Lamongan (11,012), Grissu (25,621), where the Dutch had their first factory (1602) destroyed by Javanese trade rivals in 1613, are on the way to Surabaya. East of this lies Pasuruan (36,973; q.v.), capital of a residency and a sugar port; branches off this line run to small mountain resorts. Lawang is the seat of an Assistant Resident and Malang (86,646, incl. 7,463 Europeans and Eurasians) is a military settlement and a health resort at an alti tude of 1,460 feet, near fine scenery and ruins. Pasuruan is a starting point for the ascent to the mountain resort Tosari (q.v..), the capital of the Tengger; another starting point is Probolingo (37,009, incl. 925 Europeans and Eurasians), which is a sugar port. From Probolingo the railway goes across inland to Kalisat in the south of Java via Jember (20,222), a tobacco centre. Bondowoso (18,751) capital of Besuki Residency is well laid out. Banyuwangi (25,185) to the east, opposite Bali, has an important cable station and is a port of call for Australian ships. The Dutch came to Banyuwangi in 1774 to prevent Great Britain and her Balinese allies from controlling Bali strait, but in 1811, when Raffles controlled Java, the Balinese attacked and this necessitated a British expedition against Bali.
In spite of the size of Batavia, Surabaya, Samarang, Surakarta, Bandung, Jokjakarta, etc., Java's population is mainly rural. The native Javanese, the largest element, show old established Hindu influences in their culture, and are usually darker than the more clearly Malayan Sundanese of the west; the Madurese occupy Madura and Eastern Java. All show their Mongolian affinities in a lack of body-hair and a poverty of beard. The eye is not often oblique save among the Sundanese. The traditional village is concentrated within a bamboo fence, each house having its own enclosure. The Sundanese often have their dwellings raised on piles. They live on rice with some fish but little meat. In re ligion Mohammedanism has replaced folk-beliefs. Of Buddhism and Brahmanism only the memory remains. The Javanese language is rich, its ancient form being called Kavi, which lasted until the rise of Majapahit and which had many loan words from Sanskrit. Modern Javanese includes a language of the nobility and one of the common people, while a middle form has also developed. The Javanese have notable skill in metal work, though the metal is imported and they cannot equal the Sumatra filigree workers. The Hindu tradition of architecture has long been quite dead. Boat building is highly developed. Music is much cultivated, also dancing, and the drama—shadow-shows, etc.
Land is held (a) as leasehold (Crown lands) for a maximum of 75 years; (b) as private or particular lands, sometimes subject to manorial rights, which date back to the times of the East Indian Co. and of the British occupation; (c) as hired lands in the Vorstenlanden (Principalities) ; and (d) as properties rented from natives for a maximum of 21 years followed by a break when the native owner occupies. Private lands are being bought by government to be let on lease. The hiring of land in the Principalities is not being extended. Of 21 million acres of rented agricultural land in Government possession half a million acres are let to private cultivators. There are some 2 million acres of particular lands, half a million acres are leased in the Vorstenlanden and 300,00o acres are let by Javanese to Euro peans and Chinese etc. II million acres are held from the govern ment on leases, sometimes heritable, mainly in the hands of com panies. Purchase of land by aliens is not allowed.
Native agriculture in the strict sense is primarily for home supply of food, but it also yields material for export. Estate cultivation is mainly for export. In 1926, 7,272,072 acres of irrigated rice land yielded 6,960,786 short tons (2,000 lbs.) ; 1,100,333 acres of non-irrigated rice land gave 58o,866 tons; maize with 4,837,128 acres yielding 2,219,733 tons; cassava acres, 5,879,27o tons (of fresh tubers) ; sweet potatoes acres, 1,155,470 tons (of fresh tubers) ; ground-nuts 483,200 acres, 154,700 tons (of shelled nuts) ; soya beans 421,861 acres, 107,870 tons; other legumes 522,869 acres, tobacco (Native) acres. Indigo, sugar-cane, red pepper, millet, sesame, onions and other vegetables together occupied 721,723 acres.
The coconut palm likes loose, porous, fertile soil free from stagnant water. There were 63 million coconut palms in Java in 1917 and, besides much produce used at home, 30,00o tons of copra and 10,388 tons of oil were exported in 1925. Cereals and pulses are grown as supplements to rice to guard against poor harvests, but much rice is imported from Siam, Indo-China and Burma. The common native implement is a plough of teakwood with a point tipped with iron and a yoke of bamboo ; it is drawn by two buffaloes. The harrow, hoe, weeding knife, reaping knife and dibble are also used. In native irrigation hollowed coconut trunks are used as aqueducts with posts made of barn boo, and with primitively constructed dams. European advice is now influencing methods of agriculture and the purchasing power of the natives is growing. Small strong horses are bred for rid ing. The buffalo is the chief draught animal and gives milk and meat. Javan humped cattle are crossed with wild cattle from the Pasuruan forests and hides are exported. Sheep, goats and poultry are important adjuncts. Sea fishing is largely organised by Chinese and Japanese, the latter with motor boats. Both sea fish (chiefly bandeng) and fresh water fish are reared, the former by Chinese, the latter in Preanger on the rice fields between the seasons.
Highly scientific estate cultivation, partly Chinese, but mainly European, depending on cheap native labour, occupies about 2,100,000 acres, producing mainly sugar-cane, on .rich volcanic plateau soil, and also rubber, tea and coffee. In 1894 there were only 185,250 acres of sugar-cane; in 1926, 456,836 supplying 178 sugar mills crushing from May to October which gave 1,982,795 tons, mostly from central and eastern Java, north of the volcanic range which runs from west Cheribon to Rembang, or from the Serayu valley, Merapi (in Jokjakarta and Surakarta), the volcanic lands of Madiun or the Kediri and Pasuruan residencies, with very important plantations on the plateau of the Vorstenlanden and in the valley of the Brantas. Cane, taking more than 12 months to mature, is planted once every three years, ground-nuts, rice, cassava, tobacco, indigo etc. being planted on the same ground in rotation. About 55% of the export is white sugar with a saccharose-content of 99%. Most estates are within the United Sugar Producers' Association with offices in Surabaya, and with Dutch, British, Chinese and Japanese capital. Experimental sta
tions give great assistance to sugar, rubber, coffee and tea planting.
Rubber, Hevea brasiliensis, was introduced in 1876-7 in the gardens at Buitenzorg and planting was stimulated by the coffee failure of 1900 and the rise of coffee planting in Brazil. After 1908 a spurt occurred and after 1922 an other, raising the area from 260,180 acres in 1922 to 480,958 in 1926, production ris ing from 28,902 to tons. Rubber now occupies most of the suitable land. It grows on 226,993 acres in West Java up to ',coo feet above sea, on 55,164 acres in Mid Java and on 197,221 acres in the east. The capital behind the industry is international with large Dutch and Eng lish contributions. At Chipetir in West Java one government estate of 3,120 acres produces guttapercha (246,642 lbs. in 1926). The tree is a Palaquium which was supposed to be dying out and the high grade product may have nearly 9% resin and nearly 91% guttapercha ; im purities not being 2%. Tobacco was badly cultivated by forced labour until 1864, after which it spread, covering in 1926, 67,628 acres which gave 37,905,490 lbs.
mostly from Vorstenlanden (Jokjakarta and Surakarta). Javan natives also grow tobacco under European guidance in Besuki, Kedu and Pasuruan, and the Europeans concerned buy the whole crop at prices fixed beforehand, for export chiefly to Holland. The tobacco exports in 1923 were worth 20,700,000 guilders (A,725,000; $8,383,000). In 1926 216,322 acres were under tea, a crop first tried in 1829 by the government but grown privately after 1870 and more successful after introduction of the Assam variety in 1873. Quality improves but quantity of yield diminishes at the higher levels. Some plants with Ceylon aroma are grown as well as fine Chinese varieties. Total production in 1926 was 85,950,900 lbs., Holland and Britain buying most. A Tea Expert Bureau in Batavia guards the quality and a Tea Buyers' Association protects interests of buyers. The production for 1927, including native grown tea, was 143,496,990 lbs.
Coffee, introduced from Arabia, was first shipped to Holland in 1711, 1724 seeing a shipment of 1,000,000 lbs. In 1830 the production was 40,000,000 lbs. ; in 1832 the Culture System was introduced by Van den Bosch, and by 1840 the yield had reached 54,000,000 lbs., rising to an average of i 00,0oo,000 lbs. per annum between 185o and 1870. In 1885 the element of forced labour was dropped from the Culture System and in 1915 Government left the field entirely to private industry which had begun about 1870. Up to 1875, Arabica coffee only was grown but leaf disease brought disaster in 188o and the Liberia variety was introduced. It became diseased and in 1900 the Robusta plant was brought in. The Quiloa, Uganda and Excelsa varieties are also used, as well as hybrids. Robusta has a smallish bean but gives a yield in 3 years, as against 5 for the Arabica and Liberia types ; it covers 93% of the estates and gives 86% of the yield, thriving from 1,000 to 2,500 feet in a loose soil. Surakarta, Samarang, Kediri, Pasuruan and Besuki are important coffee centres. The specu lative nature of the crop has led to decrease of production, 870,000 acres in 1926 yielding 34,000 tons. The crop is sold through brokers, chiefly at Surabaya. Robusta coffee goes to Singapore, the United States, Holland and France ; Holland, the United States and Scandinavia take the other varieties. Java gives the world 90% of its cinchona. The Dutch Dr. Hasskarl collected seeds of the Calisaya and Succirubra varieties in 1854 in South America and they were sent to Chinchiruan in the Preanger. In 1865 the government bought seeds of another, unknown, variety from an Englishman named Ledger and a hybrid was made be tween Succirubra and Ledgeriana for production of quinine sul phate while Succirubra is used for other pharmaceutical purposes. Private enterprise began in 1877 and, in 1926, 33,00o acres gave 9,317 tons of bark. The Pengalengan plateau in Preanger, about 5.000 ft. above sea, is the chief centre. Until 1896 cinchona was sold as bark in Holland, but a combination in Germany roused Java producers to open a factory at Bandung to extract the quinine. European factories still guarantee the purchase of a certain quantity of bark.
Kapok, the fibre of Ceiba pentandra, also called silk-cotton or in Java pandu, is almost a monopoly of the island, 18,000 acres in 1926 producing 35,500,000 lbs. About 134 lbs. of kapok is obtained from 15,000 seed pods.
Java Sisal (from Agave sisalana) and Java Cantala (from Agave Cantala) yielded 16,000 tons for export in 1926 mainly to the United States. The oil palm has recently been introduced and various spices, oils and drugs are produced.
Administration.—West Java forms a government containing 9 residencies, the rest is divided into 13 residencies. The Resident has under him Assistant Residents with Controleurs as sub ordinates ; the above are Dutch or Eurasian and the Controleurs look after the village (desa) headmen, with district officers as intermediaries. The Controleurs have very limited jurisdiction and the Governor of West Java and the Residents of the Barcas rule under the Governor General of the East Indies. There are also Regencies under native nobles called Regents who give and receive political advice and have had their powers somewhat in creased of recent years. The Sultans of Solo (Surakarta) and Jokjakarta hold their realms as fiefs and govern with the advice of Residents; they are allowed much ceremony and large revenues. The Dutch government has Arab and Chinese advisers appointed by the Governor General to deal with these elements of the population. (See also EAST INDIES, and MALAY ARCHIPELAGO.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.-Besides the special works quoted passim, see Sir Stamford Raffles, History of Java (1830) ; F. Junghuhn, Java: seine Gestalt, Pflanzendecke, and innere Bauart (Ger. trans. by J. K. Hass karl, Leipzig, 1854-57) ; P. J. Veth, Java, Geographisch ethnologisch, historisch (2nd ed., Haarlem, 1896-1903), a masterly compendium originally based largely on Junghuhn's•descriptions; L. van Deventer, Geschiedenis der Nederlanders op Java (2nd ed., Haarlem, 1895) ; L. W. C. van den Berg, Le Hadhramout et les colonies arabes dans l'archi pel indien (Batavia, 1886) ; E. R. Scidmore, Java, the Garden of the East (180); J. Chailley-Bert, Java et ses habitants (Iwo) ; C. Day, The Policy and Administration of the Dutch in Java (1904) ; E. S. de Klerck, De Java-Oorlog van 1825-30 (Batavia, 1905) ; Encyclopaedie v. N. lndie, art. "Java"; Guide a travers l'Exposition de Paris (The Hague, 1900) , with articles by specialists on each department of the Dutch colonies, more particularly Java; Kolordale Verslagen en Regeerings-almanak van N. Indie, being official publications of the Dutch and Dutch East-Indian Government. See also MALAY ARCHI PELAGO and the bibliographies to JAVA, History, and the other articles on parts of the Malay archipelago. (E. E. L.) The first definite reference to Java in European literature is probably that of Marco Polo in the 13th century. Early Arab chroniclers included the greater part, if not the whole, of the archi pelago under the general definition of Jawi. The history of the island before the appearance of the Portuguese (c. 1511) divides itself into two parts: the long period of Hindu ascendancy and the first part of the succeeding Mohammedan regime. It is said that Hindus visited Java during the first century A.D. Four Hindu kingdoms, existing in the 12th century, became the empire of Majapahit in 1376 or 1378. This lasted for one hundred years, when it was overthrown by the Mohammedans, whose missions had long been at work. A considerable civilization was built up by the Hindus, and de Barros says that the Portuguese found in Java "the most civilized people of these parts"; while all the other peoples of the archipelago were addicted to piracy, there is no account of Javanese piratical expeditions. After the overthrow of Majapahit Java again split up into many kingdoms or provinces. In 1578 the governor of the province of Mataram secured sover eign power and founded the empire of that name. The Dutch arrived in 1595; in 1602 the Dutch East India Company was formed; and in 161o, when the first Dutch governor was ap pointed, they were given permission to build a fort in the neigh bourhood of the present Batavia. In 1677, after several unsuc cessful attempts to dislodge the Dutch, the principality of Jakarta was ceded to them. During the next century and a quarter they were repeatedly in conflict with native princes, each challenge ending in an extension of their power. Possession of the Preanger was obtained in 1705 by treaty with Mataram; in 1745 Dutch authority was recognized over the whole of the north-east coast, and ten years later Mataram was divided into the states of Sura karta and Jokjakarta whose princes acknowledged the sover eignty of Holland. The kingdom of Bantam was subjugated in 1808. During the later Napoleonic period France laid claim to Dutch possessions in the East, and the hoisting of the French flag at Batavia brought in the British, who defeated the French at Weltevreden. Stamford Raffles was appointed lieutenant-gov ernor, subject to the control of Lord Minto, governor-general of India. The ablest and most notorious of Dutch governors was Marshal Daendals, who immediately preceded Raffles. His policy of extracting the last ounce of tribute had reduced Java to terror and exhaustion. Raffles promptly revolutionized the whole sys tem of administration, abolished the corvee and reformed the land and legal systems. He was in charge of Java from 1811 to 1816, when it was returned to the Dutch, who had to face a five years' rebellion started in 1825 by Dipa Negara, and suffered heav ily in men and money at the very time when they were engaged with the revolt of Belgium at home. In 183o Holland had no resources with which to relieve the financial difficulties of the colony. Baron van den Bosen offered to provide the necessary funds. He was governor general and colonial minister from 183o to 1839—black years in Java's history. He resumed the Daendals' policy of extortion and savage tyranny. From a population of some 5,000,000, it is estimated that Holland by forced cultures secured ii66,000,000 sterling in 12 years. Belief that Dipa Negara would ultimately return to rescue his unhappy compatriots was re sponsible for more than one rising from 1848 to 1888. In the meanwhile Dutch opinion at home was roused and in 1854 laws were passed intended to put the whole political and economic ad ministration on a humane and progressive basis, though the reform did not become completely effective till 1872. Dr. Sloet van de Beele as governor general in 1866 abolished passports for natives travelling in Java, reduced the corvee to a minimum and abandoned the monopoly of the fisheries. Primary education and a liberal penal code were introduced in 1872. Java has since been governed along lines that have frequently commanded the admiration of British students. In 1903 the natives were admitted to a part in local affairs, and a first step in representative govern ment and decentralization was followed by others, till in 1916 a volksraad or people's council was created. The effect of education, the example of Japan, the Chinese Revolution, the Indian Swaraj movement and the national and racial unrest throughout the world, especially since the World War of 1914-18, have had their re actions and repercussions on the Javanese. While the demand for home rule has grown among the moderates, the right to independ ence is insisted on by extremists. In 1918 it was decreed that the budget, hitherto provided for by the Netherlands East India Council, should be transferred to the governor general acting in consultation with the volksraad, and in 1922 the constitution was further revised with a view to the extension of popular control without prejudice to the authority of the Crown. Restrictions on native representation were consequently imposed. Recent gov ernors general have favoured giving the natives an actual majority in the vnlircraari C. H.; E. S.) The building of stone temples began at the end of the seventh century, with its centre in middle Java. An earlier West Java period which probably used only light material, has left no traces. The classical, or middle Javanese style, which closely follows Indian traditions, flourished in the eighth and ninth centuries, and while apparently in full flower comes to a sudden and un explained end about 928. The centre of culture is then transferred to East Java. Of the first centuries of the East Javanese period there are only very sporadic remains; the great mass of monu ments dates from the 13th and 14th centuries. Art declined in the 15th century and in the beginning of the 16th century was destroyed by Islam.
Middle Javanese art yields small temples, in groups and singly, square with vestibule in front, projections for niches on tne three other sides, a roof in stories with corner towers, while the decora tion is very restrained and combines harmoniously with the archi tecture; the panels of the faces are often smooth, the only orna mentation introduced being in borders around the entrance and niches, consisting of the head of a monster (kii/a-motive, derived from a lion's head) at the top and a makara at each side (kale makara ornament). The sculpture is simple and severe. On the Dieng plateau, near Wanasaba, a place of pilgrimage was dedi cated to Siva; of the original 200 buildings, eight small temples still survive.
The most important monument is the stupa of Barabudur with its fore-temple Mendut. The latter contains a very large but delicately finished image of the Buddha between two Bodhi sattva's. Barabudur itself is a terraced mound, dressed with stone, surrounded by four square galleries, crowned with niches, and covered by three circular terraces, with transparent bell stapas. In these bells and in the niches are found images of the Dhyani-Buddhas. Along the galleries Sanskrit texts are illus trated. At the top arises the main stupa, where an unfinished Buddha image has been discovered, thought to be Adi-Buddha. The foot of the monument was covered from sight even as early as the Middle Javanese period, by a pile of stones.
These edifices were erected in the 8ailendra era, A.D. 750-860. Their successors, the princes of Mataram, built even richer monu ments especially in Prambanan, where, besides the Buddhistic Chandi Plaosan, consisting of two Viharas with Bodhisattvas, terraces and side temples, the Chandi Lara Djonggrang (c. 900), was constructed as the national temple (dedicated to Siva), and the royal mausoleum. Within four rows of minor temples, on the middle terrace, lie eight large buildings. The central and most important one is for Siva and contains the images of the god and his pantheon and a series of Ramayana reliefs. On the sides are shrines of Brahma and Vishnu; opposite to Siva stands a temple for his riding bull Nandin.
As to the relation between Middle and East Javanese art, East Javanese art is regarded by some as the direct descendant of the Middle Javanese style ; it being assumed that only the dis appearance of the connecting links prevents us from following its footsteps. Others hold that East Javanese art had an indi vidual and indigenous character, and was contemporary with Middle Javanese art. The distinction between the two is clear. The harmonious connection between ornament and architecture is lost; the part is often made conspicuous at the cost of the whole; the systematic groups are replaced by apparently capri cious combinations in different styles ; the evenly flowing relief conceptions become episodic and the figures represented assume the appearance of the wayang puppets (Javanese shadow show). In the frame work ornamentation the makaras disappear and the monster heads stand alone; in the roof formation the towers are squeezed inwards, so that pyramidal forms with horizontal layers are formed. The same texts find a place in the shrines of both sects and at last 8iva-Buddha temples are built.
A few very ancient remains are pure Middle Javanese such as Chandi Badut, others, from the transition period, show a combi nation of Middle and East Javan characteristics, as at Chandi Sanggariti, built round a medicinal spring and at Chandi Gunung Gangsir near Bangil, an example of ancient brick building. East Java uses brick, combined with stone, while Mid-Java prefers stone. The mausoleum-bathing place (bathing place where burial has also taken place) Djalatunda on the Penanggungan, dating from 977, is distinctly East Javanese; the reliefs which surround the middle terrace form a contrast to Middle Javanese especially in their lively composition. A later bathing place Belahan, yielded a fine image of the king Airlangga (1042) represented as Vishnu on Garuda.
The continuous series of East Javan works of art beginning half way through the 13th century with Chandi Kidal, near Malang, shows that in spite of the great delicacy of execution the feeling of proportion in the ornamentation was weakening. Medallions have become an important motive in decoration, but are replaced later by an inserted plate. At Chandi Djago, some what later, are high receding terraces, on top of which the temple stands. The reliefs, rendering ancient Javanese texts. are entirely in wayang style. The divine figures of the Bodhisattva Amogha paga and his followers are more in accordance with the older style. Both edifices are royal mausolea. The unfinished tower temple of Singasari, with the side chapels built out from it, con tained 8ivaitic deities. In this neighbourhood was found an image of the Buddhist Prajnaparamita, one of the best products of East Javanese art. An image of Harihara, with the features of King Krtarajasa (1294-1309), the founder of Majapahit, from the ruined shrine of Simping is the work of a nearly related school.
At its height, in the 14th century, the Majapahit empire dominated the whole archipelago, and its prosperity is reflected in its monuments. To this period belong Chandi Djabung near Kraksaa.n, the only example of a circular tower with a circular crown, and probably Chandi Sawentar near Blitar, striking from the severity of its lines. Of Chandi Surawana and Tigawangi only the basements remain, with rich reliefs, in which the available space is filled with reproductions of nature. At Djedong a few gateways remain, as on the ground of the ancient capital Majapa hit itself, where also a bathing place and ruins of temples are found.
The chief shrine of East Java was Palah, now Chandi Pana taran. This Siva temple rose on the summit of three terraces, in the reliefs of which the episodes represented were cut up into small pieces, thus sacrificing the clearness of the story to the exigencies of decoration, and the artists gave human forms to the surrounding natural objects (clouds, mountains, trees, etc.). The group contains further a small temple, around which serpents coil, several terraces, bathing places and many other remains quite unsystematically arranged.
A great Buddhistic group, Chandi Sanggrahan, is almost en tirely destroyed ; Chandi Ngetos is of much clumsier form and the grottos of Selamangleng are the only examples of relief decorations found within caves hollowed out of the living rock.
In the 15th century art in the plain was declining, as at Chandi Gambar and Tuban ; whereas in the mountains there flourished sanctuaries both of a Hindu and a more Indonesian appear ance; to the first belong Indrakila, Penanggungan and Penampi kan; to the latter Argapura. In the extreme west of East Java, on the Lawu, Chandi Sukuh and Tjeta show how the Hindu Javanese and Indonesian culture, in the course of this century, combine to form a peculiar but not unpleasing mixture. The centre of worship here is not a temple but a pyramidal terrace.
At the beginning of the 15th century Majapahit fell and Islam became dominant, but the Hindu-Javan forms of building had become so national that the new religion used them in the minaret of Kudus and the mosque of Sendang-duwur ; this style proved to have no permanent hold on life. Hinduism survived for some time in the eastern corner of the island and there raised the temples of Matjanputih. It finally succumbed and took refuge on the island of Bali, where it exists to the present day.
(N. J. K.)