THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD, 1796-1814 At the end of the 18th century the Austrian Habsburgs pos sessed the duchies of Milan (including Mantua) and Tuscany; while through a marriage alliance with the house of Este of Mo dena it dominated that duchy and also had a few fiefs in Piedmont and in Genoese territory. By marrying her daughter, Maria Ame lia, to the young duke of Parma, and another daughter, Maria Carolina, to Ferdinand of Naples, Maria Theresa consolidated Habsburg influence in the north and south of the peninsula. The Spanish Bourbons held Naples and Sicily, as well as the duchy of Parma. Of the nominally independent states the chief were the kingdom of Sardinia, ruled over by the house of Savoy, and com prising Piedmont, the isle of Sardinia and nominally Savoy and Nice, though the two provinces last named had virtually been lost to the monarchy since the campaign of 1793. The papacy exercised the temporal power over extensive dominions in central Italy. The republics of Venice and Genoa were in a state of decadence. The small states, Lucca and San Marino, completed the map of Italy. The worst governed part of the peninsula was the south, where feudalism lay heavily on the cultivators and corruption pervaded all ranks.
The campaign of 1796 (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS) led to the awakening of the Italian people. Democratic propaganda, inspired by France, had already resulted in numerous clubs and secret societies, and every throne in Italy was insecure. The grand-duke of Tuscany recognized the French republic early in 1795. Napo leon's campaign of 1796 detached Sardinia from alliance with Austria and England. The response of a section of the Italians to the French propaganda helped his progress. Ferdinand of Naples sought for an armistice, the central duchies were easily overrun, and, early in 1797, Pope Pius VI. signed terms of peace with Bonaparte at Tolentino, practically ceding the northern part of his states. The districts of Reggio, Modena and Bologna had declared for a democratic policy, and an assembly was formed at Modena which abolished feudal dues and customs, declared for manhood suffrage and established the Cispadane republic (Oct. 1796).
The Cisalpine the French directory saw in the Milanese little more than a district which might be plundered and bargained for, Bonaparte, though by no means remiss in the exaction of gold and of artistic treasures, was laying the founda tion of a friendly republic.
The Transpadane republic, or, as it was soon called, the Cisal pine republic, began its organized life on July 9, 1797, with a bril liant festival at Milan. The constitution was modelled on that of the French directory, but the French republic, through its general, Bonaparte, nominated and appointed the first deputies and admin istrators. In the same month it was joined by the Cispadane republic; and the terms of the Treaty of Campo Formio (Oct. 17, 1797), awarded to this now considerable state the Venetian terri tories west of the river Adige. A month later Bonaparte absorbed the Swiss district of the Valtellina (q.v.) in the Cisalpine republic.
Early in the year 1798, Venice with its mainland territories east of the Adige, inclusive of Istria and Dalmatia, went to the Habs burgs, while the Venetian isles of the Adriatic (the Ionian isles) and the Venetian fleet went to strengthen France. In June 1797, Genoa had also been compelled to undergo at Bonaparte's hands a remodelling on the lines already followed at Milan. The new Genoese republic, French in all but name, was renamed the Ligurian republic.
Occupation of Rome and ore Napoleon set sail for Egypt, the French had taken possession of Rome. Joseph Bonaparte, then French envoy to the Vatican, encouraged demo cratic manifestations; and one of them, at the close of 1797, led to a scuffle in which a French general, Duphot, was killed. The
French directory at once ordered its general, Berthier, to march on Rome; the Roman democrats proclaimed a republic on Feb. Is, 1798, and on their invitation Berthier and his troops marched in. The pope, Pius VI., was forthwith removed to Siena and a year later to Valence in the south of France, where he died. Thus fell the temporal power. The "liberators" of Rome thereupon pro ceeded to plunder the city.
These events brought revolution to the gates of the kingdom of Naples, the worst-governed part of Italy. A British fleet under Nelson, sent into the Mediterranean in May 1798, encouraged the Neapolitan court to a rupture with France. The Neapolitan troops at first occupied Rome, but they were soon scattered in flight ; and the French troops, under Gen. Championnet, after crushing the stubborn resistance of the Neapolitan lazzaroni, forced their way into Naples and proclaimed the Parthenopaean republic (Jan. 23, 5799). Much good work was done by the Nea politan republicans during their brief tenure of power, but it soon came to an end owing to the course of events which favoured a reaction against France. At the close of 1798 the French di rectorate virtually compelled the young king of Sardinia, Charles Emmanuel IV., to abdicate at Turin. He retired to the island of Sardinia, while the French despoiled Piedmont, thereby adding fuel to the resentment rapidly growing against them in every part of Europe.
Such was the position of affairs when Bonaparte returned from Egypt and landed at Frejus. The contrast presented by his tri umphs to the reverses sustained by the armies of the French directory, was fatal to that body. After the coup d'etat of Bru maire (Nov. 1799) he, as First Consul, began to organize an ex pedition against the Austrians (Russia having now retired from the coalition), in northern Italy. The campaign culminating at Marengo was the result. By that triumph, Bonaparte consolidated his own position in France and again laid Italy at his feet. The emperor Francis was forced to sue for peace which was finally con cluded at Luneville on Feb. 9, 1801. The Cisalpine and Ligurian republics (reconstituted soon after Marengo) were recognized by Austria on condition that they were independent of France. The rule of Pius VII. over the Papal States was admitted ; and Italian affairs were arranged much as they were at Campo Formio : Mo dena and Tuscany now reverted to French control, their former rulers being promised compensation in Germany. Naples, easily worsted by the French, under Miollis, left the British alliance, and made peace by the treaty of Florence (March, 1801), agreeing to withdraw her troops from the Papal States, to cede Piombino and the Presidii (in Tuscany) to France, and to close her ports to British ships and commerce. King Ferdinand also had to accept a French garrison at Taranto and other points in the south.