ARGENTINA or the Argentine Republic (officially Repub lica Argentina) is second in area and population of the countries of South America. It has the shape of a wedge with the point towards the south and occupies the greater part of the southern extremity of the continent. The length of Argentine territory from north to south is approximately 2,070m. and its greatest width about 86o miles. The area is 1,079,965 square miles. The countries adjoining Argentina on the north and north-east are Bolivia, Paraguay, Brazil and Uruguay, the greater part of their boundaries with Argentina being formed by the Pilcomayo, Para guay, Parana and Uruguay rivers. Argentina is bounded on the west throughout its entire length by Chile; on the east and south-east, through approximately two-thirds of its length, by the Atlantic ocean; on the south by the converging lines of Chile and the Atlantic.
The northern part of the Argentine plain is known as the Gran Chaco and is in part wooded and swampy. The treeless, grassy pampa, the fertile agricultural and grazing territory which has made the wealth of Argentina, occupies the central portion. From the Rio Negro south the country is known as Patagonia and is composed principally of cold, arid steppes.
From the Bolivian border south to the Rio Negro (approxi mately one-half the length of the country) the Andean mountain zone extends east through one-third to one-fourth of the terri tory and comprises the elevated cordilleras and their plateaux, with flanking ranges and spurs towards the east. In the north the elevated plateaux and the valleys are semi-arid and are covered with extensive saline deposits. Along the Chilean border lies an extensive region of elevated desert land and mountain, without drainage, known as the Puna de Atacama. In the province of Cordoba are three short parallel ranges belonging to another and older formation than the Andes. North of the Cordoba Sierras lies a great saline depression known as "salinas grandes" 643 feet above sea-level while to the north-east is another extensive saline basin enclosing the "Mar Chiquita" (Small Sea) and the morasses into which the waters of the Rio Saladillo disappear. The highest elevations in the Argentine Andes occur north of the Rio Negro. Of these the most important are Mercedario, 22,315 feet, Tupungato, 21,55o feet and Aconcagua, 23,080 feet, the latter being the highest mountain of South America.
The Patagonian Andes, extending from the latitude of the Rio Negro to the southern extremity of the continent, differ in char acter from the northern Andes. They are much lower and dimin ish in height towards the south, the greatest elevation in Rio Negro being 11,155 feet and in Chubut and Santa Cruz, 6,988 and 7,090 feet respectively.
The region known as the Gran Chaco comprises that part of the Argentine plain extending from the Rio Pilcomayo on the northern border south to the Rio Salado del Norte. Its northern extremity lies within the torrid zone and is made up of tropical forest alter nating with plain. The general elevation of the Gran Chaco varies from 60o feet to Boo feet above sea-level. As the slope to the east is very slight the rivers are commonly obstructed by sand bars, floating trees and vegetation and large areas are regularly flooded during the rainy season. A large part of the Gran Chaco region is wooded; in the south and south-west there are large grassy plains and large areas covered with salt pans. The Argentine "Mesopo tamia," the area lying between the Parana and Uruguay rivers, belongs naturally to the Gran Chaco region. It is wooded, flat and swampy in the north but higher and undulating in the south.
The central or pampa region of Argentina is the most productive and has within its area or on its margin the bulk of the population and all the large cities of the country. It comprises the area from the Gran Chaco south to the Rio Negro, stretching through about degrees of latitude. It is a treeless, grassy plain, apparently lying on a dead level but in reality rising gradually from the Atlantic westward at an average rate of about 3 feet to the mile. This uniform level is broken along its southern margin, in the south of the province of Buenos Aires, by the small Tandil and Ventana Sierras and by ranges of hills and low mountains in the southern and eastern part of the territory of La Pampa. Exten sive depressions are found, some of them subject to inundations, as along the lower Rio Salado in Buenos Aires. In a straight line west the elevation of the pampa varies from 65 feet at Buenos Aires to 1,250 feet at a point 400 miles west.
Contrasting with the fertile pampa the southern region known as Patagonia is made up principally of arid steppes. Patagonia includes the area from the Rio Negro to the southern extremity of the continent. Except for a narrow coastal plain of varying width the surface of Patagonia is formed by a series of high plateaux at elevations varying from 30o to 1,60o feet, with the general aspect of a great plain sloping from the west to the east. The surface of the plateaux is very uneven with outcroppings of stone and this region is crossed from east to west by deep and broad valleys between high cliffs. In the west the plateau is separated from the Cordilleras by a longitudinal depression or belt, within which con ditions of climate and soil are more favourable than in any other part of Patagonia. This longitudinal belt is not continuous but is broken into sections, one of which, in the south, is 200 miles long. This belt has fertile lands and wooded sections and offers most inducements to colonists.
The island of Tierra del Fuego adjoins the continent at the south. Its eastern section belongs to Argentina and the west to Chile. In character it is similar to Patagonia. In the north the surface is undulating prairie and in the south wooded hills with glaciers and numerous rivers and lakes.
The Rio de la Plata is in reality an enormous estuary and forms an ample gulf. It is about loo miles long and 23 miles wide at the confluence of the Parana and the Uruguay. Measured at its widest point, which is slightly west of Montevideo in Uruguay, the Plata is about 56 miles wide. The port of Buenos Aires has been con structed on the banks of the Plata.
The central part of the pampa region, including a considerable part of the province of Buenos Aires and La Pampa territory, is almost entirely without running streams though it is not in any sense arid. On the eastern and southern pampa there are a num ber of small streams flowing into the Plata estuary and the At lantic. Of these the only important one is the Salado del Sur, 36o miles long. Many of the rivers of Argentina are brackish or saline in character, as implied by their names (Salado and Saladillo) .
On the southern margin of the pampa flow the Colorado and Negro rivers, crossing the entire Republic from the Andes to the Atlantic. Both are navigable. The Rio Negro is nearly 400 miles long and after the large tributaries of the Plata is the largest river in Argentina. Its waters are used for irrigating a large area.
The Patagonian region has a number of rivers which rise in the foothills of the Andes and flow in an easterly direction to the Atlantic. Of these the largest is the Rio Chubut which has an important tribu tary, the Rio Chico. There are many large snow-fed lakes in Patagonia set in the An dean foothills of which the largest are Lago Viedma, Lago Buenos Aires, Lago Argentina and Lago Nahuel-Huapi. The scenery in the lake region of Patagonia with its rugged snow mountains, forests and glaciers is magnificent.
The lakes of Argentina are exceptionally numerous though, except in Patagonia, few of them are large enough to be shown on an ordinary map. The province of Buenos Aires has more than 600 lakes, mostly small and some brackish, and La Pampa terri tory also is dotted with small lakes. The large saline body of water, Mar Chiquita, in Cordoba, is fed from the Cordoba Sierras and has no outlet, which is characteristic of many of the lakes in this region.
There are several small ports on the coast of Patagonia,,., visited only by coast line steamers. These include San Antonio in Rio Negro; Comodoro Rivadavia (the centre of the Argentine petro leum industry) and Puerto Madryn in Chubut; Santa Cruz, San Julian and Puerto Deseado in Santa Cruz. Ushuaia on the Beagle Channel is the port of Tierra del Fuego.
The port of Buenos Aires is situated on the Plata river at a Point where it is approximately 24 miles wide. After New York it has a larger movement of traffic than any other American port. The harbour is made up of four sections known respectively as Riachuelo Port, Port Madero, New Port and South Dock. There is an aggregate of 6 miles of quay served by hydraulic and electric cranes. The Government warehouses in the port area have floor space of more than 109 acres and there are about 75 miles of railway lines. There are five grain elevators with an aggregate capacity of 167,00o tons. In 1926 this port was entered by trans-Atlantic steamers of a total tonnage of and 241 sailing vessels with a tonnage of 67,791.
Argentina has within and adjacent to its territories several navigable rivers. This fact has been of importance in the develop ment of the country as ocean going steamers can penetrate to centres of production. The port of Rosario on the Parana river, 26o miles inland from Buenos Aires, is the second port of the Republic in commercial importance. It receives nearly the whole of the shipping traffic of the higher Parana and Paraguay rivers and can be reached by overseas steamers drawing up to 21 feet of water. The port of Santa Fe on the Rio Parana, 36o miles from Buenos Aires, is also accessible to overseas steamers. There are many other river ports with a traffic of relative im portance scattered along the banks of the Parana, the Paraguay and the Uruguay. (R. U. L.) Geology.—The older sedimentary rocks in Argentina are ex posed in the Cordillera of the Andes, which borders the country on the west and constitutes the "backbone" of South America. The Andes are of geologically recent origin, having been uplifted in Tertiary time. The uplift was accompanied or followed by vul canism, which produced extensive areas of rugged volcanic rock, mainly andesite, trachyte and basalt. Plastic igneous material intruded into the older rocks formed on cooling bodies of granite, syenite and diorite, and uplifted, folded and faulted the sedi mentary Palaeozoic beds that lay along or near the axis of the range. The Cordillera is paralleled on the east and in places joined by the Sierras, lower ranges in which also intrusive rocks, Palaeo zoic sedimentary beds and volcanic rocks are exposed. In areas somewhat farther east the older Palaeozoic rocks are overlain by beds of sandstone containing thin seams of coal and the remains of plants. Among the latter are some that belong to the Glossopteris or Gangamopteris flora, which thrived in India, Australia and South Africa in Permian time, when glaciers appear to have existed in South America. The occurrence of these fossil plants in Argen tina favours the view, held by some, that a great land area, which has been called Gondwanaland, once extended from India to South America. The fossil plants of the Glossopteris flora were found at Bajo de Velis, in the province of San Luis. Fossil plants found elsewhere in Argentina belong to a higher geologic horizon—the upper Triassic, equivalent to the Rhanetic of Europe. Jurassic beds are seen in the Cordillera. Some Cretaceous freshwater beds are found in the western part of the country. The early Tertiary deposits consist largely of beds of reddish sandstone, which are exposed in the Cordillera and the Sierras, where they reach, at some places, a height of i oo,000f t., and where they were folded by the Andean uplift. The marine deposits of late Tertiary time are confined to the neighbourhood of the coast and were probably laid down after the Andes had been uplifted, but freshwater deposits of about the same age are found in inland areas, especially in Patagonia.
The fauna of middle Tertiary and Quaternary time includes the remains of a gigantic wingless bird (Pliororh¢ciis), a huge armadillo-like animal (Glyptodon), giant ground sloths (Mega therium and Mylodon), a horse (Hippidion), and a bear-like ani mal (Arctotherium). Some of these have been found in the Pleisto cene beds of the pampas, which consist mainly of rather loose deposits of very fine sand and clay. Large areas of glacial deposits show that masses of ice covered the slopes of the Andes in glacial time.
Ores of gold, silver, lead and copper are found in the neighbour hood of the eruptive rocks in the hilly regions near the Andes.
(G. McL. Wo.) Climate and Rainfall.—With the exception of the small area which lies north of the Tropic of Capricorn in the Torrid Zone, Argentina lies in the South Temperate Zone. The central or pampa district including the most populous provinces has a temperate, healthful climate, enjoying a large amount of sunshine and, as a whole, adequate rainfall. All over the Republic January is the warmest month and the coolest season June and July.
There is little variation of climate over the pampa region con sidering its great extent, nearly ten degrees of latitude. It includes the provinces of Buenos Aires, southern Santa Fe, the eastern part of Cordoba and La Pampa territory. In the capital of Cordoba, on the northern margin of the pampa, the annual aver age temperature is 62.4° F. The average temperature for Jan uary is 77 degrees and 49.6 degrees for June. In the city of Buenos Aires the average annual temperature is 61•1 degrees Fahrenheit; for January 73•7° and for July 49.2° F. There is thus little difference in temperature between Buenos Aires and Cordoba but there is a marked difference in rainfall. In Buenos Aires the rainfall reaches 37.9in., well distributed throughout the year, while Cordoba has 28 inches. Light frosts are sometimes experienced in Buenos Aires during the cold months but the vege tation is never frozen. The city of Bahia Blanca in the southern part of Buenos Aires province is on the southern margin of the pampa. It has an average annual temperature of 60° F, 70•4° F for the month of January and 46.7° for the coldest month, July, with an average annual rainfall of 21.5 inches.
Due to the length of Argentine territory, which extends through 33 degrees of latitude, and the great variations in altitude in its range from the Atlantic coast level to the peaks of the Andes, there is necessarily great variation of climate. The climate is further modified by prevailing winds and mountain barriers. Southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, although they corre spond in latitude to Labrador, are made habitable and an excellent sheep raising country by the southern equatorial current along the continental coast.
The Torrid Zone area in the extreme north extends through about i 2 degrees and is about 30,720 sq.m. in area. The eastern part of this area is the low, wooded plain of the Gran Chaco where the mean annual temperature is 73° F and the annual rainfall 63 inches. The western extremity is the arid plateau of the Puna where the annual average temperature falls below 57° and the rainfall to 2 inches.
The region comprising the provinces of San Luis, Catamarca, La Rioja, San Juan, Mendoza, western Cordoba and south-western Santiago del Estero has a scant rainfall and irrigation is necessary for agriculture. The climate is hotter than on the pampa. In Santiago del Estero the temperature sometimes reaches I18° F. The climate in the Mesopotamian district does not present great variation of temperature. The Gran Chaco region has the heaviest rainfall of any part of the Republic. Tucuman has ample rainfall with a hot summer in the lower sections. Salta and Jujuy are arid in part but have moisture in the lower valleys. The winter months (May to August) are the dryest in all parts of the Republic north of the Rio Negro. In the northern Andean region there is a well marked dry and rainy season.
In general in Patagonia the temperature falls progressing south ward though Santa Cruz is colder than Tierra del Fuego. The climate is everywhere healthy. The coldest part of the Republic in winter is a point in the western part of Santa Cruz where the mean temperature is 32°.
The pampa, covering so large a part of the Republic, has no native trees whatever. The only trees on the pampa have been planted by men, often about their habitations. The pampa, except where the land is under crops, is covered with grasses edible for cattle, divided into two main classes : pasto duro (hard grass) and pasto blando (soft grass). The pasto duro is the native grass which is coarse and of strong growth. This has been replaced in a steadily growing area by pasto blando or cultivated pastures, grown from imported seed. This substitution is an important gain from the economic point of view. The natural fertility of the pampa and the amount of rainfall over most of its area make it readily adaptable to every kind of cultivation suitable to this climate.
The greater part of Patagonia is barren and there is no arboreal growth except in the well watered valleys of the Andean foothills. Here there are regions of good, cultivable land, pasture land and timber. The water courses and depressions of the steppes afford pasturage sufficient for sheep. In places the steppes have a thorny shrub growth.
In Tierra del Fuego there is much moisture and an Antarctic vegetation is found. There are rich pastures and the forest growth is vigorous. The forests of Tierra del Fuego and of the Andean foothill region of Patagonia include pine, cypress, cedar, fir and Antarctic beech.
The total forest region of Argentina is 289,0o0 sq. miles. The provinces having the largest forest area are Salta, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe and La Rioja and El Chaco territory. The native varieties include choice hardwoods suitable for cabinet making and a very important collection of woods for tanning, dyeing, textile and medicinal purposes. Many of the trees are indigenous and are identified only by their Indian names. The better known varieties found in the forests of northern Argentina include the algarrobo, the jacaranda, the laurel, the white and red quebracho, the lignum vitae, rosewood, walnut and orangewood.
The most valuable single item produced by the forests of Ar gentina is the quebracho, used in tanning. The red quebracho is also a particularly valuable hardwood for railway sleepers, bridge piles, fence posts, paving blocks, etc. The variety of plants suit able for tanning and dyes is particularly large, the Mesopotamian region alone having 23 species of dye plants. With the exception of quebracho this is a source of wealth as yet little exploited. Yerba mate or Paraguayan tea is a native shrub which grows in the forests along the Upper Parana and is now being extensively cultivated in Formosa.
The advent of • European civilization in Argentina created an extraordinary change in the Argentine flora, as it now includes useful trees and plants from every part of the world, including the cereals, alfalfa and new grasses for the plains and all varieties of fruits. The Australian eucalyptus has been planted in many places and thrives on the pampa. Other varieties which have been planted extensively in the pampa region include the acacia, the sycamore, the paraiso and a variety of evergreens.
Fauna.—Comparatively few species of animals exist on the steppes of Patagonia. In the northern provinces of Jujuy and Salta the wildcat and chinchilla are found. The guanaco, a wild species similar to the llama, the alpaca, vicuna and the vizcacha, a native variety of rodent, inhabit the cordillera. In the tropical region of the north and on its borders are found several species of monkey, the puma, the jaguar, ferret, racoon, vizcacha, ant eater and rabbit as well as other species usual to the South Amer ican jungle. On the pampa are found the fox, skunk, martin, deer and armadillo. The hare is found everywhere and the Patagonian hare on the pampa and in Patagonia. The carpincho, a wild pig, and the nutria are found in many provinces. Among the fauna of Patagonia are the fox, martin, guanaco, puma, deer, rabbit and armadillo. The vizcacha is found in Rio Negro territory. In the lagoons of the Mesopotamia are two species of cayman, popularly known as yacuares. Frogs and toads are found on the pampa.
Argentina has a great variety of bird life. The condor inhabits the Andes and the Cordoba Sierras. Among those that inhabit the pampa are hawks, falcons, owls, herons, storks, swans, partridge, plovers, ducks, chajas and many others known by native names. Parrots and similar tropical birds are found in the extreme north. There is a variety of rhea in Patagonia and on the pampa. Pen guins occur in Tierra del Fuego.
The coast waters and the Plata and interior rivers have an abundance of fish. The common varieties of shell fish are repre sented. Among fresh water fish are trout, salmon, eels and the pejerrey, considered a great delicacy.
The 1914 census showed a population of 1,575,814 in the Fed eral District. The returns for the provinces were as follows: Buenos Aires, 2,066,165; Santa Fe, 899,640; Cordoba, Entre Rios, 425,373; Corrientes, 347,055; Tucuman, Mendoza, 277,535; Santiago del Estero, 261,678; Salta, San Juan, 119,252; San Luis, 116,266; Catamarca, I00,391; La Rioja, 79,754; Jujuy, 76,631. Returns for the national territories were: La Pampa, 101,338; Misiones, 53,563; El Chaco, 46,274; Rio Negro, 42,242; Neuquen, 28,866; Chubut, 23,065; Formosa, 19,281; Santa Cruz, 9,948; Tierra del Fuego, 2,504; Los Andes, 2,487. Martin Garcia Island had 783.
During the first half of the 59th century civil wars and despotic government seriously restricted the growth of the population but since the consolidation of the republic in 1860, it has increased rapidly. Attracted by the good climate and opportunities, European immigrants arrived in ever increasing numbers. It will be noted that the population approximately doubled in the period of 26 years intervening between the first census and the second and again in the period of 59 years intervening between the second census and the third. During the years of the World War the number of those who left the country exceeded the number who entered by 214,959 and during this period growth was only from the natural increase. From Jan. i, 1919, to the end of 1926 the total increase of population was 2,462,963 of which 1,848,814 resulted from the surplus of births over deaths and 614,149 was the surplus of immigration over emigration.
During the domination of Spain the bulk of immigration was Spanish so that the stock on which the Republic was built was mainly Spanish creole. An indication of the relative importance of the various European strains in the Argentine race at present is the totals of immigration from the different countries since given under "Immigration," which show that Italians composed about 47% of the total, Spaniards 33% and 63 other nations 2o%. The 1914 census showed that in the three most populous provinces, Buenos Aires, Santa Fe and Cordoba, Italians were most numerous among the foreign population and Spaniards next.
In 186o there were 5,656 immigrants and the number increased each year to 39,967 in 1870. Thereafter years that established new records of entries were: 1873-76,332; 1885-108,722; 5889 260,000; 5906-302,000; 1908-303,00o. From 1910 to 1914 the migratory movement was very heavy. In 1910 345,275 entered and 136,405 left, with a net gain to the country of 208,870; in 1913 364,878 entered and 219,519 left, net gain 145,359. The war prevented workers from leaving Europe in the same numbers as previously and the number who returned to their countries was greater than those incoming, resulting in a net loss of 1 53 in the years 1914 to 1918 inclusive. In 1919 the movement was about balanced and by 1923 it was restored to its pre-war proportions.
During the years 1857 to 1924 inclusive the total number of immigrants was 5,481,280 and of emigrants in the same period 2,562,79o, leaving a net gain to the country of 2,918,490. Divided by nationalities immigrants from 1857 to 1924 inclusive were : Italians, 2,604,029; Spanish, 1,780,295; French, 226,894; Rus sians, 169,257; Ottomans, 157,185; Austro-Hungarians, 91,869; Germans, 100,699; English, 64,426; Swiss, 37,017; Portuguese, 38,096; Belgians, 24,142; Swedes, 2,664; Danes, 12,896; Hol landers, 8,751; Poles, 24,714; North Americans, 9,028; Yugoslays, 9,25o; other nations, 119,968.
Senators are elected by the legislatures of the provinces and in the federal district by a special body of electors, for a term of nine years, and deputies are elected by direct popular vote. The two chambers meet annually from May I to Sept. 3o in Buenos Aires, the national capital.
The President of the Republic is elected by electors voted for by the people. His term is six years and he can not succeed himself. The President must be native born and of the Roman Catholic faith. He is commander-in-chief of the army and navy and appoints all civil, military, naval and judicial officers. The Vice-President is elected in the same way as the President and is the presiding officer of the senate. The President in his executive capacity is assisted by a cabinet of eight ministers, appointed by him, who are Ministers of the Interior, Foreign Affairs and Wor ship, Treasury, Justice and Public Instruction, War, Navy, Agri culture and Public Works. There is universal male suffrage. In 1912 the electoral laws were modified and the secret ballot sys tem substituted for open voting. The benefits resulting from this reform have been very important.
The territories are under the direct control of the national gov ernment. The city of Buenos Aires is a federal district and is not a part of the province of Buenos Aires. It has a municipal coun cil of 22 members elected by the taxpayers. The executive head is the Intendente Municipal or mayor, who is appointed by the President of the Republic.
There are, principally in Buenos Aires, facilities for professional education too numerous to describe. These include commercial, professional and technical education, and instruction in the arts and crafts, languages, accounting, mining, agriculture, arts, music, dramatic art, dressmaking, etc.
The three census takings since the establishment of the republic have shown the following proportion of illiterates: Mei Wo t] These figures show the progress accomplished by the educational system in the reduction of illiteracy. The great numbers of illit erate adults who have constantly arrived from abroad over a long period should be taken into consideration in connection with the figures of illiteracy, also the fact that the development of Argen tina on anything like its present basis is comparatively recent. In 1913 illiteracy was lowest in the province of Buenos Aires, where it was 3o8 per thousand, and highest in the provinces of Jujuy and Los Andes, which had 674 and 667 per thousand, respectively.
The University of Buenos Aires is the most important and at tracts students from other South American countries. It com prises six faculties, law and social sciences, medical sciences, philosophy and letters, economic sciences, agronomy and veteri nary science. In 1926 there were 20,746 students enrolled in all the universities with 1,893 teachers. The cost of university in struction is approximately 20,000,000 pesos annually. The total annual expenditures of the Nation and provinces on education are pesos 236,000,000, or about one-fifth of the aggregate revenues of the Nation, provinces and municipalities.
While the Argentines as a race are strongly Roman Catholic, the Church confines itself to its function of spiritual guidance, especially in the more populous districts, and religious considera tions enter very little into political issues. Instruction in the national and provincial schools is without religious bias. The President of the Republic has the right of presentation to Bishop rics and approves the bulls of the Pope in accord with the Supreme Court. They require a law when they contain general and per manent provisions.
While the national expenditures have increased rapidly to keep pace with the needs of a growing country the opinion of com petent authorities is that they have not been excessive in view of the national resources. The financial situation of the Argentine Government is generally regarded as strong.
Since 1923 the budgetary situation has changed in that each year including 1926 showed a surplus of revenues over expendi tures amounting to pesos 10,986,443 in 1923, pesos in 1924, pesos 119,523,993 in 1925 and pesos 5,847,296 in 1926. This favourable state of affairs has probably resulted from the fact that after 1923 the budget of revenues and expenditures of that year was extended from year to year and the Government therefore did not embark on large new programs of expenditures.
The totals of revenue and expenditure given out by the Govern ment for each year and ordinarily published include extraordinary items of revenue, such as loan proceeds, and extra-budgetary items of expenditure, principally public works appropriations. The budget of ordinary revenues, which are the permanently re curring items, for the year 1923 also was applied for 1924, 1925 and 1926. In this the main classifications of revenue and their amounts are: Customs Revenues, pesos 267,170,000; Inter nal Revenue Taxes, pesos 108,150,00o; Direct Taxes, pesos 66,000,000; Public Services, pesos 46,900,00o; Public Enterprises, pesos 46,557,893; Sundries, pesos 17,103,699; making a total of pesos S51,881,592. There is also, carried separately, an item of pesos 14,000,000 from State lotteries and the tax on perfume, which is allocated to fixed subsidies. This increases the total ordinary revenues to pesos 565,881,J92.
In the foregoing general classifications "Customs Revenues" includes import and export duties. The import customs, the largest single item of revenue of the Government, is included with pesos 23 7,170,000, or slightly over 4o% of the total ordinary revenues. Export duties figure with pesos 30,000,000. "Internal Revenue Taxes" are taxes on tobacco, alcohol and alcoholic beverages, perfume, matches, insurance and playing cards. The largest of these items is the tax on tobacco included with pesos 53,000,000. The "Public Services" are the post office and tele graph. Under this heading are also included the statistical tax, consular fees and lights and buoys. The "Public Enterprises" are the ports and docks (figuring with pesos 36,400,00o) the Sanitary Work of the Nation and the State lands. Under the heading "Sundries" come the State banks and provincial debts.
The budget of ordinary expenditures totaling pesos as adopted for 1923, was continued for 1924, 1925 and 1926 with slight changes, the principal one being that the estimated out lay for the service of the public debt which was pesos 12 in 1923 was increased to pesos 134,178,427 in 1924 and 1925 and pesos 165,755,623 in 1926. In the administration, expenditures were kept below estimates and after 1923 revenues exceeded the amounts estimated, a surplus for each of the four years resulting.
The main classifications of expenditure as shown in the 1926 budget, are as follows : pesos Service of the Public Debt . . . . . . Justice and Education . . . . . . 135,321,710 Ministry of Interior . . . . . . 109,664,818 Army Navy 47,198,427 Ministry of Public Works 22,930,288 Ministry of Finance . . . . . . Ministry of Agriculture . . . . . 20,740,50o Ministry of Foreign Affairs . . . . . National Congress . . . . . . Pensions . . . . 2 6,000,000 Supplementary credits and service of floating debt . 15,000,000 Total Expenditures . . 650,276,865 With this total must be included the payment of subsidies, for which special revenues are provided to the amount of pesos increasing the total of budgeted revenues to pesos The earnings and expenses of the State railroads are not in cluded in the budget. Their receipts for 1926 were gold pesos 22,610,500 (the gold peso is equal to $0.9648 United States Cur rency) and for 1927 gold pesos 23,912,700. Operating expenses have not been published.
As with the United States, the economic situation of Argentina was greatly consolidated during the World War, which created an unlimited demand for all Argentine products at prices without precedent. The large trade balances in favour of the country dur ing the years of the war and those immediately following increased the national wealth and the gold stock.
The outstanding issues of the National Government have been made almost entirely for the construction of public works including railroads, port works and works of sanitation and irrigation which are in part revenue producing and practically all promote the welfare and productivity of the country. A part of the financing of recent years has been for funding of floating debt resulting from accumulated deficits over a term of years, but these deficits in turn have largely resulted from public works expenditure.
The floating debt, which at the end of 1913 amounted to pesos 68,640,020, had increased to pesos 711,255,000 at the end of 1918. It reached its maximum figure, pesos 892,824,000, at the end of 1922. The floating debt has been carried principally in the shape of short term renewable advances from the local banks (generally at lower interest rates than those prevailing in foreign markets for long term loans), in large part discounted in the Bank of the Nation. The Alvear administration started a policy of funding the floating debt through long term issues. By Aug. 31, 1927, the floating debt had been reduced to pesos 441,668,200 and further f unding operations are contemplated.
At the end of 1913 the total funded debt of the nation was pesos 1,238,004,130. At the end of 1918 it had not greatly in creased, the total being pesos 1,314,147,700. (The floating debt in this period, however, increased pesos 642,614,980.) On Aug. 31, 1927, the total funded debt was pesos 2,038,153,900, an increase of pesos 724,006,200 over 1918. The total funded debt as on Aug. 31, 1927, was made up : external, pesos 1,015,640,200; inter nal, pesos 1,022,513,700. This relation of internal and external debt, each representing approximately half of the total, was ap proximately the same in 1918. In 1913 the external debt was approximately 30% greater than the internal funded debt. The total indebtedness of the Government on Aug. 31, 1927, including both funded and floating debt, was pesos 2,479,822,100 or $1,052,684,481 U.S. currency at par of exchange. The annual average percentage of the national revenues required for the debt service (interest and amortization) for the last ten years has been 27.66%. The above total of indebtedness does not include the floating debt of the State railroads, which at the end of 1927 amounted to pesos 397,059,000. The issues of the National Mort gage Bank, which on Dec. 31, 1927, amounted to a total of pesos 1,344,12 7,150, are guaranteed by the National Government but there is small likelihood that this will ever become a liability of the nation.
As an offset to this debt the National Government owns proper ties valued in the 1914 census at $1,125,000,000 U.S. currency, including revenue producing properties valued at $J30,000,000 U.S. currency. The capital value of the State-owned railroads and their equipment was gold pesos 203,127,000 at the end of 1926.
The Caja de Conversion issues notes against gold at the rate of 1 paper peso to 44 centavos gold or pays out gold for notes at the same rate. When it started it took over the existing paper circulation amounting to 293,018,233 pesos, against which a gold reserve was to be built up from various sources. This reserve for the original currency issue is known as the Conversion fund and was eventually accumulated to the amount of gold pesos 30,000,00o. When war broke out in 1914 the delivery of gold against paper money was suspended and was not resumed until Aug. 27, 1917. The issue of currency is limited to the Caja de Conversion. On Dec. 31, 1927, the stock of gold was pesos against which it had a currency circulation of pesos This, with the 3o,000,000 gold pesos of the conversion fund, gave a gold guarantee of 83.69%, making a very strong currency. The par value of the gold peso is $0.9648 U.S. currency and of the paper peso $0.4245 U.S. currency. The sterling equals 5•04 pesos gold.
The National Mortgage Bank (Banco Hipotecario Nacional) was established by the Government in 1886 to make loans on real estate secured by first mortgages on income producing property. Loans are repaid by a one per cent cumulative annual sinking fund which may be increased by the borrower. The bank obtains funds to loan by the issue of its bonds, known as cedulas, secured by the mortgages taken. They are also the direct obligation of the bank and are further guaranteed, principal and interest, by the National Government. The cedulas have long been a popular in vestment in Argentina and are favourably known in Europe and the United States. On Dec. 31, 1927, the total issue of cedulas of the National Mortgage Bank amounted to pesos 1,344,127,150.
The army air service conducts a school at El Palomar where military pilots are trained. From there they pass to a secondary course known as Group No. 1, where they are given experience in military flights and manoeuvres. (R. U. L.) Navy.—Disputes with Chile in the closing years of the r 9th century induced the Argentine Government to build up an appreci able navy, but a treaty between the two countries contracted in 1902 provided for the restriction of further armaments for the following four years. Warships under construction were sold. In 1906, however, the naval activities of Brazil caused both countries to place large orders in Europe for new vessels and since that time modern types have been added periodically to the fleet. In 1928 the Argentine navy consisted of two fairly modern battleships. the "Rivadavia" and the "Noreno" of about 30,00o tons, armed with 12 12 in. and 12 6 in. guns and having a designed full speed of about 23 knots; four old armoured cruisers of 6,84o tons, three armed with two 10 in. and 14 6 in. guns and the fourth with two 10 in., ten 6 in. and six 4.7 in. guns; a smaller old cruiser of 4,780 tons; two modern flotilla leaders; seven rather old destroyers and a certain number of gunboats, despatch vessels and auxiliaries.
In the previous year, however, Congress voted $75,000,000 gold currency for the navy, of which roughly one-third was to be de voted to new construction, the whole quota being spread over a period of ten years. This was to provide for three cruisers, six flotilla leaders, six submarines, one aircraft-tender and two sur veying vessels. The new cruisers are to be vessels of 6,800 tons displacement, armed with six 7.5 in and 12 4 in. guns, together with six above-water 21 in. torpedo tubes. The designed full speed is 32 knots. The first two named "Almirante Brown" and "Vein tecinco de Mayo" were laid down in Italy in 1927. Two flotilla leaders, the "Churruca" and "Alcala Galiano" were purchased from Spain. Three of the destroyers were being built by J. S. White and company, and the two small surveying ships by Haw thorn Leslie and company, both British firms; orders for the submarines were due to be placed in France.
The personnel of the navy amounts to about 9,500 all ranks, with a reserve of about 8,o0o, and a special reserve of 20,000.
The main arsenals are Buenos Aires, with two good-sized dry docks, Puerto Belgrano with two large dry-docks and Rio San tiago with one large dry dock and two small floating docks.
While on the pampa the rainfall is sufficient in general, in the provinces of the west and north-west nearly all farming is done by irrigation. The total area under irrigation in 5926 was hectares: Mendoza 600,000 hectares; San Juan 200,000 hectares; San Luis 65,000 hectares; Cordoba 240,00o hectares; Santiago del Estero 70,000 hectares Tucuman i 20,000 hectares; Catamarca 30,00o hectares; La Rioja 15,0oo hectares; Salta 50,000 hectares; Jujuy 40,000 hectares ; Neuquen 6,000 hectares; Rio Negro 29,000 hectares; Chubut io,000 hectares.
Agricultural lands in Argentina are for the most part held in large tracts, the small farmer being a comparatively insignificant factor in the total production. Fields of a thousand acres or more of wheat are common. Army officers commonly received grants exceeding 5o,000 acres of ter wars in the last century. As time goes on the original holdings are being sub-divided but this move ment is slow. Leasing of farms is a common practice and land is often turned over to farmers on the share system.
The extension of the present wheat belt is limited because of the fact that the area to the south and west of it has an average rainfall less than 1 gin., insufficient for wheat, but the introduction of dry farming and irrigation will eventually permit extension. Weather conditions at times diminish the crop, principally droughts, late frosts and hail. In less degree rust and grasshoppers are a menace. The average yield per acre in Argentina is not high, 12 bushels against 17 for Canada and 3o for England. The yield per acre has already been increased and will be further increased with the development of more intensive methods. The total area sown to wheat increased from 3,3 79,000 hectares in 190o to hectares in 1927. Exports were 2,993,423 metric tons in 1925 and 2,034,773 in 1926. In 1927 wheat exports reached their maximum figure, 4,392,000 metric tons.
In 1925 exports of maize were 2,935,965 metric tons, in 1926 and in 1927 8,340,900 tons. The area planted with maize in 1927 was 4,289,000 hectares.
Linseed comes after wheat and maize in importance as an ex port commodity. This crop is cultivated for its seed as little progress has been made locally in exploiting the textile fibre of the plant. Argentina is the first producer, with over half of the world's production. Linseed is produced mainly in Santa Fe, Cordoba, Entre Rios and Buenos Aires. The area sown with this crop in 1927 was 2,855,000 hectares. The maximum exportation reached 1,885,900 metric tons in 1927. Exports in 1925 were 960,707 metric tons and in 1926 1,673,081.
The three remaining crops constituting export items of impor tance are oats, barley and potatoes. The area sown with oats in 1927 was 1,279,000 hectares, of which three-fourths was in Buenos Aires province. Exports in 2925 were 433,010 metric tons; in 1926, 539,698 tons; in 1927, 603,60o tons. In 1927 there were 396,000 hectares sown with barley, principally in Buenos Aires. Exportation of barley was 59,376 metric tons in 1925; 173,289 tons in 1926; 297,000 in 1927. Potatoes are grown principally in the south-east region of Buenos Aires, in Santa Fe and Entre Rios. Alfalfa, hay, beans, tobacco and cotton are also exported in comparatively small amounts.
Four important crops principally for domestic consumption are alfalfa, sugar cane, grapes and yerba mate. Alfalfa is cultivated in an area second only to the wheat area in practically all parts of the country. No other crop has had such a rapid extension. Sugar cane is grown principally in Tucuman, Jujuy and Chaco. The total area under sugar in 1927 was 140,270 hectares. This crop is elaborated locally. (See "Sugar Industry" under "Manu factures.") The grape and wine industry is centered in Mendoza and makes the prosperity of that province. It is also carried on to a less extent in the province of San Juan. The vineyard area in 1924 was 75,906 hectares in Mendoza and 28,197 hectares in San Juan.
Yerba mate or Paraguayan tea, the leaf of a shrub, is consumed in great quantity in Argentina. It was formerly imported but in recent years the industry has been developed in Formosa where in 1927 there were io,000,000 trees planted. In 1924 the produc tion was 20,000,000 pounds.
The bulk of the meat is shipped chilled or frozen. Chilled meat must be consumed within 4o days after slaughtering. England takes principally chilled meat and the Continent frozen meat, for which the lower grades of cattle are used. Exports of chilled and frozen meat during recent years have been as follows: Cattle raising is carried on principally in the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Entre Rios, Corrientes and Cordoba and La Pampa territory, but to a lesser degree in all parts of the Republic. The cattle census of 1922 showed 37,064,900 horned cattle, 9,432,400 horses, 623,40o mules, 289,400 asses, 36,209,000 sheep, 4,819,800 goats and 1,436,600 swine. The value of the cattle in the country was officially calculated in 1914 census at $1,360,000,000 U.S. currency.
It is estimated that Argentine production of petroleum in 1926 accounted for only 26 per cent.
of the country's total fuel con sumption of petroleum, coal and wood. In a statement made to Congress by the existing private oil companies it was said that of 27 companies originally organized only 13 remained and of these only 3 have a production of importance.
The last complete industrial census was taken for the year 1913. The showing for those industries supplying articles of general consumption is as follows (these figures obviously in clude small shops supplying local trade) : clothing trades, 7,081 establishments with 57,564 workers; furniture trades, 4,441 es tablishments with 29,007 workers; construction trades, 8,582 es tablishments with 87,310 workers; arts and crafts, 996 establish ments 4,297 workers; metal trades, 3,275 establishments with 29,327 workers; chemical products, 567 establishments with 9,986 workers; graphic arts, 1,439 establishments with 13,286 workers. The 1913 census showed a total of 48,779 industrial establish ments, including the food and textile industries giving employ ment to 410,201 workers with an annual production of pesos 1,861,789,710 and a consumption of raw material to a value of pesos 1,086,779,606. Of the raw materials consumed 75% were of domestic origin. A prominent Argentine statistician compiled new statistics based on independent investigations for the year 1925 which showed a total capital employed in industry of pesos 2,467,000,00o and a total annual product of pesos 2,886,000,00o. These results include allowance for the higher scale of values and costs in 1925 over 1913 as well as new plant. A more conservative authority estimates the investment in industry in 1927 at pesos 2,000,000,000. The principal centres of manufacturing in order of importance are the Federal District and the provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fe and Cordoba.
The great amount of capital immobilized in carrying these enormous sugar stocks and low prices prevailing in 1925 and 1926 have created a situation of grave difficulty for the industry. The province of Tucuman has passed legislation tending to force the export of the surplus production, but it remains to be seen how successful this expedient will prove as exports of sugar during recent years have been negligible.
The Tucuman Experiment Station, founded in 1909 by the provincial Government, has done very important work in testing new varieties of cane and demonstrating the value of the Java stock now in general use. It fulfils various functions of super vision in connection with the sugar industry.
The figures of foreign trade _ for the four years ending Dec. 31, 1927, are as follows: Imports Trade (actual value) Exports balance gold pesos gold pesos gold pesos 1924 . . . 828,709,993 +182,684,589 1925 . . . 876,847,666 867,929,882 — 1926 . . . — 30,318,000 1927 . . . 856,600,000 I,008,200,000 +151,600,00o Figures of imports used in this discussion are official estimates of actual value as against nominal values based on tariff valua tions. The main classifications of imports in 1926 and their value are: alimentary products, gold pesos 92,809,864; textile ma terials and manufactures, gold pesos 183,266,51o; oils and fats, including petroleum and petroleum products, gold pesos 494; chemicals and drugs, gold pesos 31,934,383; wood and manufactures, gold pesos 49,495,869; iron and steel and manu factures, gold pesos 147,090,434; other metals and manufactures, gold pesos 22,931,033; agricultural machinery and implements, gold pesos 30,172,300; stone, earth, glass and ceramic products, including coal, gold pesos 61,106,301; electrical machinery and materials, gold pesos 23,374,555; paper and manufactures, gold pesos 24,065,810.
The value of the four principal classifications of exports in 1925 was: gold pesos Live stock products . . . . . . . . Agricultural products . . . • 444,666,437 Forestal products . . . . . . . . 21,628,639 Other articles . . . . . . . . 15, 249, 783 Products of the cattle industry comprised 44 per cent. of the total exportation in 1925. The principal items were: frozen, chilled and salted meat, gold pesos 138,831,004; hides and skins of all kinds, gold pesos 77,898,113; wool, gold pesos, 71,650,133; preserved meat, gold pesos 16,536,263; butter, gold pesos 20, 523,716; tallow and melted fat, gold pesos 18,750,332.
Agricultural products constituted 51 per cent. of the total ex ports in 1925. The principal items were: oats, gold pesos 16,717,448; barley, gold pesos 2,910,018; linseed, gold pesos 87,150,188 ; corn (maize) , gold pesos 116,152,21 2 ; potatoes, gold pesos 1,619,925; wheat, gold pesos 192,065,477; flour, gold pesos wine, gold pesos Forest products comprised 21 per cent. of the total exports in 1925. The value of extract of quebracho constituted gold pesos 18,049,725; quebracho log, gold pesos 2,737,066. The only other item in this class is firewood, with a value of only gold pesos Railroads.—The first railroad in Argentina, 6m. long, was opened to traffic in 1857. This was the nucleus of the line now known as the Western. In 1854 a concession was obtained by William Wheelwright, an American, for a railway from Rosario to Cordoba, which he finally constructed with the aid of British capi tal. The first section was opened in 1864 and now forms part of the Central Argentine system. The first railroads in Argentina were constructed under interest guarantees or cash subsidies from the Government. The interest guarantees were later discontin ued, the Government granting rescission bonds in settlement. Railroad construction progressed rapidly and the mileage in creased steadily up to 1914.
The largest and most important lines, representing an invest ment of approximately $1,000,000,000 U.S. currency, are British owned. The total mileage at the end of 1927 was 22,834, of which miles were privately owned and 4,401 miles State owned. Of the privately owned railroads the British lines constituted a mileage of 14,830.
The railroads nearly all radiate outward from the port of Bue nos Aires and the province of Buenos Aires is covered by a net work so close that no point within the province is over 25 miles distant from a railroad. The provinces of Santa Fe and Cordoba come after Buenos Aires in length of railroad mileage. With the exception of Mendoza and Tucuman there is little railroad devel opment within any of the other provinces but practically all the provinces and national territories north of Chubut have railroad connection with Buenos Aires. There are three different widths of gauge in the Argentine railroads, wide, standard and metre, but no great inconvenience results because of well organized grouping of the different gauges.
The principal railroad systems are : Buenos Aires Great South ern (British) 3,948 miles; Buenos Aires and Pacific (British) 3,362 miles; North Central Argentine (State) 3,055 miles; Cen tral Argentine (British) 3,305 miles; Western (British) 1,882 miles; Province of Santa Fe (French) 1,118 miles.
The administration of the State-owned railroads is organized as a body separate from the national railroad administration. While the foreign owned railroads centre in Buenos Aires and the other principal ports the State has constructed its railroads in the extreme south and the extreme north with the object of opening up new territory. The two international railroads of Argentina are State owned. These are the Argentine Transan dine Railway through Mendoza which connects with the Chile Transandine Railway on the Chilean frontier, and the North Cen tral Argentine Railway which connects with a Bolivian railroad near La Quiaca on the frontier of Bolivia. The Government also owns a railroad in each of the territories of Patagonia running inland from the port of Comodoro Rivadavia in Rio Negro (124 miles) ; from Puerto Madryn in Chubut (78 miles) ; from Puerto Deseado in Santa Cruz (178 miles). The State-owned Argentine North Eastern railway has connection by ferry with the Central Paraguay railway and there is connection by ferry with the rail roads of Uruguay.
Commercial aviation has made little progress in Argentina. Since 1922 a passenger service has been maintained at times be tween Buenos Aires and Montevideo.
The length of roads was officially stated in 1925 as 15,525 miles, only 3 of the railroad mileage of the country. One of the reasons for the lack of roads has been the lack of stone on the pampa with which to build them. Produce in the past has largely been trans ported in the high wheeled Argentine carts, suitable vehicles for bad roads, but the increasing number of motor vehicles in use is creating the demand for good roads. A program for national road construction, presented to Congress in 1925, is still being studied. Several provinces are also actively studying ways and means for road construction, notably Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba and Mendoza. More progress in this respect has been made in Buenos Aires than in any other province. At the end of 1926 there were 240,000 motor vehicles in the country, of which 45,643 were im ported in that year. The railroads are paying an annual contribu tion to a road fund created under the Mitre Law, which amounted to about $25,000,000 U.S. currency at the end of 1926.
There is regular aerial postal service between Buenos Aires and Montevideo. An arrangement was entered by the Government in June, 1927, for the establishment of an aerial postal service with Europe. At the beginning of 1928 the only part of this service in operation was between Buenos Aires and Puerto Natal in Brazil.
The internal telegraph service is operated by the State in con junction with the postal system. The length of the system in 1925 was, 43,358km. with 111,3o8km. of line. The Government service covers the whole country. There are other telegraph systems be longing to provincial governments or railroads.
International cable companies established in Argentina are the Western Telegraph Co., the All America Cables Inc., the Compania Telegrafico-Telefonica del Plata and the Italcable. Transradio Internacional, S.A., an Argentine company, operates wireless serv ice with foreign countries and with ships over 1,000km. (621m.) away from Buenos Aires. Under Argentine law all traffic with ships within i,000km. of Buenos Aires is reserved for the Argen tine naval stations.
Telephone service is for the most part carried on by private companies. At the end of 1925 there were 757 urban systems, the length of the system was 35,620 miles with 417,355 miles of line. There were 201,336 instruments in use. These statistics do not include lines owned by the railroads and privately.
Argentine republic is a happy latinization of the silver part of the name Provincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata, United Provinces of the Silver River, as they called themselves on breaking away from Spain in 1816. The Rio de la Plata is not a river nor is there silver in the region. It is the vast estuary into which the great Parana and Uruguay rivers pour their turbid waters. The muddy, yellow water is what catches the eye as one rounds Cape Santa Marta on the Uruguayan coast, if one happens to arrive in day light. No doubt it caught the eye of the Spanish pilot Juan Diaz de Solis in 1515. He must have tasted it forthwith for he reported his discovery of a sea of fresh water. It went by that name, Mar Dulce, for a dozen years after him.
The present name of Silver river came later when Sebastian Cabot sent home to Spain a quantity of rude silver ornaments obtained from the Indians (1526). This was a dozen years before Pizarro's dazzling conquest of Peru, at a time when persistent rumours filled all Spain of a land with vast treasures of gold and silver somewhere in the interior of the continent. Cabot's silver seemed to locate this Eldorado.
Cabot, like Solis, had been chosen for his skill in navigation to carry exploration into the Pacific. He had no errand in the Parana but was attracted up the river by the greater abundance of food there, his supplies having run out. He built a fort which he called Sancti Spiritu above the present city of Rosario. It was the first settlement in what is now Argentine territory. From there Cabot went up the Parana into what is now Paraguay, but he met oppo sition; he had no resources nor authorization to explore and settle here, so after two years he went back to Spain discouraged.
Within two years after Cabot's return Pizarro had conquered Peru and its gold and silver began to flow towards Spain. Imme diately the kingdom was deluged with offers from individuals eager to fit out expeditions at their own expense to conquer new principalities for themselves and for Spain in the New World. Among them was Pedro de Mendoza who came out with a force of 2,000 men and ioo horses. It was through his efforts that Buenos Aires was first settled in 1535. Cortez in Mexico and Pizarro in Peru had found Indians living in settled communities with con siderable knowledge of agriculture, and able to furnish supplies of food in quantities. That was how Mendoza expected to sustain his men in the River Plata. Here, however, conditions were different. The Indians lived in scattered bands, uncivilized nomads picking up a precarious living by hunting small birds and animals. They had little knowledge of agriculture and no stores of food beyond dried fish and meal made from them. The capture of one small band of savages only increased the hostility of the rest. Food supplies gave out, famine was followed by sickness and Mendoza had to abandon his newly founded city and push up the Parana for food to save the lives of his men, but starvation and trouble followed him. Finally Mendoza, too, became discouraged and left the expedition in the hands of his lieutenant, Juan de Ayolas dis appointed to find so little trace of precious metals.
Ayolas again led his diminished force up the river, built a fort at Asuncion, at the junction of the Paraguay with the Pilcomayo, and went on. They had followed the Paraguay as leading more toward Bolivia. Near the loth parallel they found swamps which made the country almost impassable, and the main body flung up earthworks while 200 picked men under Ayolas went on to find Peru and the mines, only to be slaughtered by ambushed Indians on the eve of rejoining their comrades as they were returning with treasure. The 600 left behind under Domingo de Irala waited out the six months agreed upon and then returned to Asuncion. The country here was better and the Indians had gone further in agri culture than any Indians farther south and it proved possible here to establish encomiendas of enslaved Indians to win the products of the soil for Spanish masters, much as in Mexico and Peru, except that there were no mines of gold or silver. Irala encouraged marriage with the native women, for the Spaniards had brought few women with them and the Guarani women are attractive. Thus began the first Spanish colony of the La Plata basin, and thus was founded the race of modern Paraguay.
But the hope to get at the wealth of Peru from this side was slow to die. Other expeditions were sent out from Spain. In 1542 Cabeza de Vaca, of Florida fame, came with a great force across southern Brazil to Asuncion, but he soon tired of the hardships, and withdrew, leaving affairs once more in Irala's hands. By 1573 the colony controlled the territory between the Paraguay and Parana rivers and had completely broken the resistance of the Indians to Spanish seizure of their lands. The country abounded in grasses and had only the mildest of winters. The few horses, cattle, sheep and goats which the Spaniards brought with them needed no care to make them multiply until their numbers were beyond computation. In a few years they had spread across the Parana into the pampa, completely transforming the economic possibilities of the country and laying the foundations of the present wealth of the Argentine people. It was a band of these Creoles of Paraguay that in 1573 drove the Indians—now on horse back like themselves—away from the site of Santa Fe and made there the first permanent settlement in the Argentine. All the younger men in this band must have been born in Paraguay, doubt less of Indian mothers. Their leader was a Basque veteran of the conquest of Peru, Juan de Garay. In that same year another cur rent of colonization had flowed down from Peru, and Cordoba was founded about Zoom. W. of Santa Fe across scrubby pampa. By Panama they had come into the Pacific, up over the Andes of Peru, across the plateaux of Bolivia and thence to settle Santiago del Estero in 1553 and Tucuman in 1564. Within a few years the currents met and the trail to Peru from the Plata was established by way of Cordoba and Tucuman.
But the peak of Argentine interest in Paraguay came in 1581 when Garay succeeded in planting the first lasting colony at Buenos Aires. With flocks, herds and crude instruments of hus bandry they had migrated like the patriarchs of old from the Paraguayan settlements of Asuncion. There was no thought of conquest now, nor of Indians to be enslaved that their masters might enjoy the results. Garay came prepared to divide the land and till the soil. The new colony was to live by its own labour.
Spain regarded her colonies as the personal territory of the sovereign, to be exploited solely for his benefit. All South America was under the viceroy of Peru. Under him were captains general. Governing councils called audiencias exercised judicial and ad ministrative control under the captains general, or in cases like Bolivia (Upper Peru), where there was no captain general, con stituted the complete government. The Argentine was under the Audiencia of Charcas in Bolivia. Each city had a cabildo of not more than 12 men appointed for life who exercised local judicial and administrative functions. On these cabildos occasionally Creoles could serve ; this was their only participation in the govern ment. The settlements at Cordoba, Tucuman and Salta on the side of Bolivia were at watercourses in dry country, where cattle, mules and fodder could be raised for the mining lands of Peru. They were expected to supply themselves with European wares from Peru which in turn was to get them from the ships that came from Spain to Porto Bello on the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Panama. Spanish interest in the new world was in the precious metals. The Treasury's fifth was not safe unless the entire output could be made to flow through one channel. Exportation of precious metals through Buenos Aires was stringently forbidden; for that matter even tallow and hides and hair might not be sold there to English and Dutch ships. Everything the Buenos Aires creole had to sell must go overland to Panama. Everything he needed from Europe must be bought at Panama. Even Spanish ships were almost completely barred from the Rio de la Plata.
The creoles of America could not fail to see that Spain con ceded them no rights and made it her policy to hinder their in crease of wealth and comfort in every way. Such a system could have but one result. Illicit trade grew apace in spite of the severity of penalties. The Dutch and English could furnish goods with profit at a sixth the price of those coming via Panama, and were glad to take in return hides and hair and such silver as had been smuggled down from Bolivia. The royal governors themselves connived at the trade. The people broke the laws at every chance. Still prices were exorbitant and life primitive. In 1618 permission was given to load two small ships at Cadiz with goods for Buenos Aires and attempts were made to keep these goods from getting into the interior and keep gold and silver from coming out in re turn, but all the interest of the people of the country was in evading the law.
For a long period a Portuguese settlement, Colonia, just across the river from Buenos Aires, afforded much opportunity for smug gling. The boundary between Portuguese and Spanish settlements was long indefinite. With its story is involved the terminating of the encomiendas in Paraguay in 161o, putting the Indians in the care of the Jesuits, the Jesuit missions, their invasion by the Paulistas from Brazil in 1632, the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 and the bargains between Spain and Portugal for territory. When the viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata was formed in 1776, the Portuguese were at once driven out of Colonia, the south-west boundary of what is now Brazil was fixed about as now and the Indians from the Jesuit missions took refuge in Spanish territory in Entre Rios or Uruguay. The new viceroyalty included the present republics of Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia as well as the Argentine. At this period the great bulk of the population was still in the northern provinces while Buenos Aires was a town of 20,000 people, the resort of smuggling merchants. With the creation of the viceroyalty it was given the privilege of free commerce with Spain. At once the fact that the city was the only practicable outlet for the products of a large region began to bear fruit. The city grew rapidly in wealth and population. At the end of the century it had 40,000 white people.
On the pampa between there had grown up among the teeming cattle and horses a new race, the gauchos. Spanish mainly of race, horsemen and cattle hunters by occupation, loyal followers of any man who was bolder and a better horseman than his fellows, almost exclusively meat-eaters, contemptuous of city people and city ways of life, recognizing no boundaries on unfenced pampa, no right but force, they were the natural material of revolutions. Edible grass in every month of the year and horses more numerous than people gave these gauchos extraordinary mobility. Cattle more numerous than the horses gave them self-transporting food. The introduction of Spanish cattle and horses into a prairie land which had been of no value at all when the Spaniards came was the most important outcome of the conquest of Peru. Indians of the pampa had soon learned to avail themselves of the herds and flocks and had been transformed from wretched savages into well-fed formi dable raiders.
The Buenos Aires people were prosperous and had increasing contacts with European culture. Young men of promise went to Europe for education or training in government and war. The writings of Rousseau, Voltaire and Montesquieu were familiar in the city. The revolt of the English Colonies in North America and events of the French Revolution were followed with sympathy and interest. A traditional resistance to Spanish misrule was giving place to a recognition that Spain had no right to oppress them. This began to find articulate expression. Then the British came. In 18o6 a fleet of British ships appeared off Buenos Aires with a landing force of 1,60o men under Sir Home Popham. The viceroy Sobremonte was at the theatre that June 24 when the news came that the fleet was in sight. He took refuge at once in the citadel, gathered what money he could from the treasury next day and fled to Cordoba. He made no defence and the British marched in.
Sullenly resentful of their viceroy's incompetence and cowardice the people of Buenos Aires at once began to organize for resistance. They had the help of Liniers, a capable French soldier long in the Spanish service, and the wealthy Spanish merchant Martin Alzaga, who provided funds for equipment, as well as the bodily assistance of many Spanish-born citizens. On Aug. 12 they drove the invaders out of the city. A larger British force that came the next year was also defeated and compelled to retire. The citizens distin guished themselves in this fighting to which the houses and streets of the city were well suited, and the creoles especially were elated. They felt it was their exploit, but though the Spanish governing body failed them, Spanish-born citizens co-operated in every way and Liniers was no creole. When the poor viceroy came creeping down from Cordoba, just after they had won back the city from the British, they insisted on his instant removal from office. After a further display of ineptitude before Montevideo he departed for Europe.
In Europe Spain fared perhaps worse, for Napoleon had seized Spain for his brother Joseph. A corner of Spain was free from enemy soldiers and a committee at Seville claimed to rule the kingdom in the name of the captive monarchs. Further it assumed authority over the colonies abroad. The main feeling in the New World was an outburst of patriotic fervour. Funds were raised to assist the home people against the invader. It will be understood that the creoles were often lukewarm in this. No one talked of independence of Spain but the feeling was growing that the creoles must have a more adequate part in ruling themselves. On May 25, 181o, a great assembly of people in arms in the public square of Buenos Aires insisted on the resignation of the Spanish viceroy and his cabildo and the substitution of a junta of creoles, Bel grano, Saavedra, Moreno, Castelli, Passo, Azcuenaga, Alberti, Lar rea and Matheu. Though this junta professed to govern in the name of the captive king of Spain, they raised the new Argentine flag of light blue and white. Formal independence of Spain was not declared till July 9, 1816, when deputies from all the provinces met in assembly at Tucuman. But since the meeting of May 1810 no representative of Spain has ever governed in Buenos Aires.
Up in the silver country of Bolivia the Spaniards were strong and there fierce conflicts broke out between creoles and Spaniards. War was waged with the utmost savagery, each side shooting its prisoners. Among those thus summarily executed by the creoles were Liniers, hero of the reconquest, and Martin Alzaga, the wealthy Spaniard who supplied the defenders of Buenos Aires with funds. At last under the leadership of Belgrano the patriot armies won. But the greatest difficulty the creoles had to overcome was their incessant and violent quarrels with each other. In the decade following 1810 these disputes among the creoles would have enabled Spain to re-establish herself but for the singular stead fastness of the creole general, San Martin. Resigning a colonelcy in the Spanish armies, he returned to Buenos Aires in 1812. Con vinced that no colony could be free until the Spanish were driven out of Bolivia and Peru, he set himself to drilling an army in Mendoza with which to invade Chile. Stubbornly refusing every summons from his friends to take part in civil wars, no matter how desperate their need, he persisted in his preparations, training and equipping his 4,000 "horse grenadiers" till in 1817 he was able to take them, artillery and all, over the high passes of the Andes, above 1 2,000f t., and put an end to Spanish power in Chile by the battles of Chacabuco and Maipu. When the Spanish fleet had been dispersed by the Irish dare-devil seaman, William Brown, San Martin was able to transport his army to Peru and effect a junction with Bolivar that ended Spanish rule on the continent.
But the dissensions among the creoles went on. Buenos Aires had by this time become preponderant in numbers as well as in wealth and culture and expected to rule the upland provinces in place of Spain, but this was by no means acceptable to the interior provinces. Agriculture and industry in the country were at so low an ebb that taxation was almost impossible. The only considerable source of income was the custom-house. But the custom-house was at Buenos Aires and the province of Buenos Aires possessed it and used the revenue. It took many decades to force it to give up this income to the nation. Presently it appeared that there were two main parties in national affairs, Unitarians and Federalists. The Unitarians were strongest at Buenos Aires among people of wealth and culture, the Federalists were characteristic rather of the provinces, the gaucho party under local caudillos or chiefs. The year 1826 saw a constituent assembly in Unitarian control which elected Rivadavia president and put out a Unitarian consti tution really giving Buenos Aires control over all the interior prov inces. Rivadavia began many important works like schools, immi gration, banking and correction of faults in government and the administration of justice, which seemed theoretical and impractical to many people and the government was rejected by the interior provinces, civil war breaking out more violently than ever.
We may say that the unification of the republic was brought about finally by Juan Manuel Rosas, dictator, despot and tyrant for a long series of years. He ended disorders by putting to death or driving into exile any one who ventured to oppose him in the slightest degree. Rosas had become the idol of the gauchos of southern Buenos Aires by almost incredible feats of horsemanship and personal daring, though born and brought up in Buenos Aires. Having built up a formidable military force of devoted gaucho followers, he applied it so effectively in the service of the provin cial government during the disorders that followed Rivadavia that he was made comandante de campana for the province. Together with five armies from other provinces he carried on a much-needed campaign against the Indians of the south which resulted in removal of all danger of Indian raids for many years and made him acquainted with powerful caudillos in other provinces, like Quiroga and Lopez. He was a Federalist and working together with other caudillos in the years that followed he was able to speak for them and call them an Argentine confederation merely by effec tiveness in getting them to do his will. At first he controlled the government of Buenos Aires from without, keeping his military post but always declining the governorship of the province. Finally he allowed the legislature to make him governor 183o-33, and again—after repeated refusals—in 1835. This time he insisted that he must be offered extraordinary powers or he would not undertake the office. He seems to have used his first governorship and military experience for the consolidation of his influence and the study of the success and failures of the men about him. He saw men failing always because their followers failed them or betrayed them. He appears to have come to the conclusion that he must remove from office and if necessary from the world first those who opposed him and then those who did not accept his plans with enthusiasm. He began his governorship "with extraor dinary powers" by removing from office of any sort all Uni tarians and later all who were suspected of lukewarmness in following him. From that he entered on a career of steadily increasing persecution and bloodshed. We have mentioned that opposition leaders in revolt or civil war were often shot. Rosas ordered his men to cut the throats of 1,5oo surrendered men at once. For half of his career a census was made of 15,000 killed by his orders and 7,000 killed in battle opposing him, besides 30,00o more driven into exile. He literally decimated the popula tion of the Argentine. He set out to make disloyalty impossible and succeeded for 18 years. It is probable that he had no con ception of government by law. Unitarians must be killed, driven away or intimidated. He is said to have preferred the life of the gauchos to that of the city, but it is probable the gaucho life was almost the only one that he knew. Civilization and the things of Europe meant nothing to him. He defied England and France and brought on a long blockade of the country. Finally he aroused all the neighbour countries against him. When he provoked his former lieutenant, Urquiza, whom he had made governor of Entre Rios, to revolt, Urquiza was able to use the ships of these coun tries to take across the Parana the largest army that had ever trod Argentine soil and destroy Rosas's power forever in the battle of Caseros in 1852.
Urquiza called together a convention in Santa Fe which in adopted a constitution much like that of the United States. What turned out important for political considerations was that the Re public was to have the custom-house revenues, which Buenos Aires was now collecting, and that internal customs were abolished, which destroyed the main revenue of the interior provinces. For further discomfiture of the Buenos Aires people that city was to be made federal and separated from its province. As Buenos Aires declined to come into the confederation on those terms the national capital was temporarily loaned the city of Parana, capital of the province of Entre Rios, for headquarters. Urquiza had been elected president by the convention, which was fortunate, for the nation had no money as yet and no military force and Urquiza had both, as landowner and Caudillo of Entre Rios. Presently Buenos Aires was in rebellion and Urquiza had to go down and defeat General Bartolome Mitre's army in the battle of Cepeda. Then he marched into Buenos Aires which agreed to come into the confederation and give up part of the customs duties for the next five years. Urquiza's six years ended in 186o and Derqui became president after him, the constitution forbidding the president to succeed himself. Urquiza was now merely general of the national army, which did not exist. Derqui had no province, no resources. Urquiza seemed lukewarm in his support and wanted Parana for his own provincial capital. Disorders broke out in the impover ished interior provinces; Derqui intervened and restored order, in some cases by summary executions.
The president's obvious weakness encouraged Buenos Aires under Mitre to further resistance culminating in the battle of Pavon, Sept. i7, 1861, in which Mitre's troops decisively defeated the national forces. The main fighting for the federals was done by an army Derqui had raised in Cordoba. Urquiza was present at the battle with 4,000 men from Entre Rios, but hardly took part and as soon as things went against Derqui, withdrew his troops to Entre Rios. On Nov. 5 Derqui resigned from the presidency and went_ to Montevideo. In May 1862 a new convention met and Mitre was elected president of the republic, arranging that Buenos Aires should remain the capital of the province but should enter tain the federal government and give up the revenues from the custom-house.
Mitre took office Oct. 12, 1862, as president of the republic. In a way he was the last of the caudillos, but a very different type of man from most of them. His varied accomplishments would have won him recognition in any land. His histories of Belgrano and San Martin are classic works that have gone to many editions, and after completing his active military and political career he founded the newspaper La Nacidn in Buenos Aires which won him honour wherever it was known. He was governor of Buenos Aires when Mendoza was destroyed by an earthquake in March 1861 and won gratitude by the promptness of his province's generosity. As president he made treaties, opened the Parana to navigation and encouraged immigration that had hitherto been impossible, prevented at first by Spanish prohibition and later by universal civil war. In Urquiza's day immigrants from Switzerland, Ger many and Italy began to come into the almost worthless lands of Santa Fe and to transform them almost as magically as Spanish horses and cattle had done three centuries before. In Rosas's day hides, hair, wool and tallow were almost the only resources of the land. Except in Buenos Aires no one ate bread and the bread for Buenos Aires was made in part from imported wheat. The country did not raise enough for its own needs.
Sarmiento was elected to succeed Mitre in 1868 without dis order. He called himself the schoolmaster president and was an enthusiastic believer in the need of popular education to maintain real prosperity in the country. He had studied schools in New England, and he founded teacher-training schools in the republic with teachers brought from the United States. He founded too the astronomical observatory at Cordoba. The country was pros perous. Sarmiento's measures could not hope to be generally popular, however. All knew that the cost was high. His nomina tion of Avellaneda to succeed him as president caused some riot ing, put down by young Col. Julio A. Roca of Salta.
Avellaneda was inaugurated in 1874. He made Roca his min ister of war. Then came Roca's final reduction of the Indians on the pampa. They had come back on the fall of Rosas but now they were destroyed or captured and placed in servile capacities in the cities of the land. Buenos Aires felt a grievance when the new lands were divided among several provinces instead of coming in tact to her. The city put up a candidate for president but Avella neda controlled the election and Roca was easily elected in 1880, the sixth of the constitutional presidents. He was the first president to dispose of a really effective army of federal troops. He made the city of Buenos Aires a federal district, founding the new city of La Plata as provincial capital, thus solving the most difficult prob lem of the republic. His administration was a period of great material expansion. Immigration attained 40,00o a year and was increasing rapidly at the conclusion of his term. Production increased, railway mileage was doubled and in 1884 the country was for many months on a gold basis, a thing almost unheard of in South America. Roca's brother-in-law, Juarez Celman, took over the succession in 1886 but proved unequal to the task. In 1890, after a period of disastrous extravagance and dishonesty, he was obliged to resign and the vice president, Carlos Pellegrini, became president. In 1892 Luis Saenz Pena became president, fol lowed in 1898 by Roca on a second term. (M. JE. ; C. PR.) .
After loo years of recurrent political disturbances, a new era for Argentina had opened. The newly installed president gave the closest attention to reforms designed to foster and strengthen public respect for and confidence in the institutions of the coun try. The first step in this direction was the reformed electoral law which instituted the secret ballot. This was the outstanding and most valuable of his official actions, and incidentally it is worth noting that the first effect of the reform, at the next presidential election in 1916, was the defeat of the Conservative Party to which the author of the new law belonged, and which had en joyed political control of the country for over a quarter of a century. Early in 1914 President Pena was too ill to fulfil his duties, and the presidential mandate was assumed by the vice president, Dr. Victorino de la Plaza.
President Pena died in 1914, thus leaving to his successor, Dr. de la Plaza, the difficult task of directing the affairs of the nation through the early years of the World War. In a country with such a cosmopolitan population the sudden disruption of inter national relations necessarily had an immediate repercussion. All important contracts involving shipping, the exportation of grain and meat and the importation of manufactures, were cancelled and something like a business panic was imminent. It was averted only by the declaration of a moratorium. The strict neutrality of Argentina was proclaimed. It was soon recognized that the re public would play an important part in the provisioning of Europe, and out of a moment of threatened panic, the country emerged in a spirit of confidence that at least it could not be ad versely affected by the war. So far as the shortage of manufac tured goods was concerned Argentina found a substantial source of supply in the United States. The national wealth increased substantially during the war, the high prices obtained for food stuffs more than compensating for any loss the country suffered by the adverse effect of the war in retarding the normal develop ment programme. The production of most cereals was enormously increased and the pastoral industry became more prosperous than it had ever been before.
Argentine joined the League of Nations in 1919 but withdrew the following year in protest against the repressive policy of the allies toward Germany and did not resume membership until 1927.
In Oct., 1922, Dr. Irigoyen was succeeded as president by an other radical, Dr. Marcelo T. de Alvear. Under this administra tion, after a brief period of depression, the country entered upon four years of unprecedented prosperity. The gold standard was reestablished in 1927 and by 1928 the republic was one of the largest gold holding countries in the world. In April 1928 Dr.
Irigoyen was again chosen president, seemingly with sufficient strength to proceed with his party's programme of social reform and industrial expansion. But his career was sharply terminated in 193o by a conservative revolution, which ousted him from office and set up a provisional government under Gen. Jose Francisco Uriburu. The reactionary character of the new adminis tration appeared in its semi-official sanction of the fascist League Civica. Strong prejudice among the people, however, against any form of arbitrary rule forced Uriburu to carry out his promise and restore the constitution. In the election which followed (1931) the radicals stayed away from the polls and so the con servatives remained in power, though under the more moderate leadership of Gen. Don Augustin P. Justo. They managed to stay in office but not to restore peace. Revolts flared up periodi cally in different provinces and the League Civica pursued its lawless course against the Radicals. Indeed so high did the tide of popular emotion run that in July 1935 a debate in the Senate chamber degenerated into a pistol battle in which one man was killed and two others wounded.