ASIA MINOR, the general geographical name for the penin sula forming the bulk of the republic of Turkey, on the extreme west of the continent of Asia, bounded on the north by the Black Sea, on the west by the Aegean, and on the south by the Medi terranean, and at its north-west extremity parted from Europe only by the narrow straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles. On the east no natural boundary separates it from the Armenian pla teau. The term Asia Minor was not used by classical geographers (it is first found in Orosius in the 5th century A.D.) and is not in local or official use now. The name might have arisen as a vague distinction between the larger continent and the Roman province of "Asia" (q.v.), which at one time included most of the western section of the peninsula. Geographically, however, the name has a far deeper significance; the country is but "a small Asia" with its highland interior and its fringe of rich, less arid, well-peopled coastlands. The name Anatolia (Anadol) is used locally for the part of the peninsula west of the Halys, i.e., with Cappadocia and Pontus. This name appears first in literature in the work of Constantine Porphyrogenitus (loth century).
A central core of ancient rocks with newer folds rucked round about it, it is comparable in size and structure to the Iberian peninsula, its counterpart in the western Mediterranean. The function of Asia Minor as a great "landbridge" between the con tinents has made its study important, and from its shorelands from early times Europe has received varied immigrations of men and culture. The interior has been through many changes of fortune which some students are inclined to associate with changes of climate and especially with variations of rainfall.
Structural Features and Mountain Ranges.—The central plateau of Asia Minor consists largely of nearly horizontal strata, while the edges are intensely folded and form mountain ranges allied to the systems of Tertiary date in both Europe and Asia. Tertiary deposits are found both on the coastal lowlands and among the mountains and there are late Tertiary fresh-water strata on the plateau. The southern system of folds forms the great arc of the Taurus with its north-eastward continuation the Anti-Taurus. The Taurus is composed mainly of Eocene and Cretaceous limestones, but Miocene strata also have been markedly uplifted, though they are not deeply involved in the folding. The average height is some 7,000f t. but there are sum mits above ro,000ft. in both Lycia and Cilicia (Bulghar Dagh). In the Anti-Taurus the folding has affected the Eocene, but not the Miocene, strata. The sharp north-south ridge of the Ala Dagh (1 i ,000f t.) is a conspicuous feature. The name Anti-Taurus is variously used by different authors : (I) some give this name to the northern buttress of the plateau, parallel to the Taurus ; (2) for some it means the whole line of heights separating streams running to the Black sea and Anatolian plateau from those running to the Mediterranean and the Persian gulf, i.e., the line from the source of the Kizil Irmak through the Ala Dagh to the Taurus ; (3) others use it for bare hills south of Sivas, traceable right along, in more forested heights, to the Taurus. The range of Amanus (Giaour Dagh in the north) is separated from the Taurus and Anti-Taurus line (3rd sense) by the deep valley of the Jihun and its continuation, the Gulf of Alexandretta. It forms the limit between Cilicia and Syria and is highest at Kaya Duldul (6,5ooft.) above the Jihun. Groups of volcanic peaks rise above the plateau and extend for about i 5om. from Kaisarieh to Kara man, with Argaeus or Erjish Dagh rising above Kaisarieh itself to a height of z 3, r oof t., the highest point in Asia Minor. The north side of the plateau is formed by the Pontic arcs. Along the eastern arc from Trebizond to Sinope a well defined system includes large amounts of Cretaceous limestones and serpentines, and Oligocene beds are involved in the folds. West of Sinope, Cretaceous beds form a long strip parallel to the shore line, and this system culminates in Ilkaz Dagh, south of Kastamuni.
On the west of the plateau the main direction of folds is east to-west but, on the borders of Phrygia and Mysia, they meet the north-westward extension of the Taurus folds and bend around the ancient block of Lydia ; there are zones of serpentine and of crystalline and schistose rocks, believed to be Palaeozoic, and it is known that portions of the old block are mingled with newer fold schemes on the western coasts. There are many evidences of volcanic activity in the district of Kula and in hot springs con nected with the Lycus, Maeander and other valleys. The valleys of the Maeander, Hermus and Caicus communicate between the plateau and the Aegean coast while those of the Kara Su and Sangarius lead to the sea of Marmora, the coast of which continues the Mesozoic band mentioned for the Black sea coasts west of Sinope (see above), but here the rocks are Jurassic and Triassic as well as Cretaceous. Devonian fossils have been identified near the Bosporus. Marine Eocene beds occur near the Dardanelles but the Tertiary beds of western Asia Minor are mostly fresh water and late Tertiary; it is interesting that in the west they are much disturbed, as this points to the recent date of important movements in the Aegean area. In this last area we meet with broken mountain arcs that link the Dinaric and Greek mountain lines with those of Asia Minor and partial submergence has brought into existence islands, the disposition of which in chains led them to play a very important part in the early development of maritime intercourse in the 3rd millennium B.C. Here again volcanic activity is conspicuous (Milo, Santorin, etc.), among the f old-lines.
Lakes and Rivers.—The salt lake Tuz Geul (anc. Tatta) on the central plain, said to be 6om. by zo-3om. in winter, becomes a mere marsh in the summer drought. Other salt lakes are Buldur Geul (2,9oof t. above sea-level) and A j i-tuz Geul (2,600f t.) . Beishehr Geul (anc. Karalis) at 3,77oft. is a fine freshwater lake with an outflow stream discharging into the lower Soghla Geul which in its turn loses itself on the arid south part of the plateau. Egirdir Geul (probably anc. Limnae) at 2,85oft. is fresh and noted for its fish. In north-west Asia Minor, in the lowlands between the ridges that run out westwards to the south-east coast of the Sea of Marmora, are Isnik Geul (Ascania), Abulliont Geul (Apol lonia) and Maniyas Geul (Miletopolis Lake).
The older drainage of Asia Minor seems to have been west wards towards the Aegean depression, but some phase of this depression was attended by uplift on the west of the peninsula converting the western ends of streams flowing to the Aegean into a plateau-edge drainage, and giving rise to a large lake on the plateau, the remnants of which include the plateau lakes above named and the salt incrustations between Tuz Geul and the stream from Soghla Geul. The subsidence of the Black sea allowed northward streams to cut back into the plateau and the Sakaria (Sangarius), the Kizil Irmak (Halys, boom. long) and Yeshil Irmak (Iris) have captured portions of the old east-to west drainage. The depression between the blocks of Arabia and Asia Minor has analogously helped the Euphrates to cut back and capture a part of the east-to-west drainage. Old names include Tembris (Pursak Su), a tributary of the Sangarius; Cappadox (Delije Irmak), a tributary of the Halys; and the Lycus (Kelkit Irmak), a tributary of the Iris.
Of the western plateau-edge drainage one should mention Edre nos Chai (anc. Rhyndacus), and Susurlu Chai (Macestus), which unite i 2m. before they flow into the sea of Marmora; Bigha Chai (Granicus), which flows into the west of the Sea of Marmora; and Menderes Su (Scarnander), which reaches the Dardanelles. The last two rise in Kaz Dagh (Mt. Ida). Bakir Chai (Caicus), Gediz Chai (Hermus), Kiichiik Menderes (Caystrus) and Menderes Chai (Maeander) flow to the Aegean and bring down so much silt from the plateau edge that, for example, the Caystrus silt has filled up the port of Ephesus ; while the Hermus has changed its course more than once, for as recently as 188o it reached the sea near Smyrna, but now follows a parallel valley farther north. The silt of the Maeander long ago filled up the harbour of Miletus and converted its islands into mounds standing out of a swamp. The chief tributary of the Hermus is Kun (Phrygius), which receives Giirduk (Lycus) and Kuzu (Cogamus) ; those of the Maeander include, on the right, the Glaucus, Banaz (Senarus), and Hippurius, and on the left, Churuk Su (Lycus), flowing by Colossae, Ak (Harpasus) and China (Marsyas).
The southward drainage to the Mediterranean works back along structural lines of the Taurus fold mountains and is thus varied in its directions, but it consists mainly of rather short streams which flood down quantities of water in winter and spring. They are probably helped also by subterranean drainage. In Lycia are the Gereniz Chai (Indus) and the Eshen (Xanthus) ; in Pam phylia the Ak Su (Cestrus), Keupri Su (Eurymedon) and Me navgat Chai (Melas). Farther east the two branches of the Geuk Su (Calycadnus) run south-east between lines of the Taurus. The Tersous Chai (Cydnus) has three streams, one of which flows through the Cilician Gates; in its lower course it deposits so much silt that Roman Tarsus is covered to a depth of 20 feet. The Sihun (Sarus) and its tributaries flow through precipitous ravines in the Taurus, and one of the tributaries (Kerkhun Su), cutting back westwards through the Bulghar Dagh, opens a way for the roads from the Cilician Gates to Konia. Apparently at one time the Sihun flowed south-eastwards to join the Jihun (Pyramus). This river is made up of a number of streams and in its lower course runs through the defile between the Taurus and the Giaour Dagh to reach the Cilician plain near Budrun, whence it flows west and south-west to the sea past Missis, being naviga ble up to this point. East of the Kezil Irmak and the Jihun basins we enter that of the Euphrates.
Passes.—Over the principal passes of the Taurus there went Roman or Byzantine roads :—(t ) from Laodicea to Adalia (Attalia), by way of the Khonas pass and the valley of the Istanoz Chai; (2) from Apamea or from Pisidian Antioch to Adalia, by Isbarta and Sagalassus; (3) from Laranda by Coropis sus and the upper valley of the southern Calycadnus to German icopolis and thence to Anemourium or Kelenderis; (4) from Laranda by the lower Calycadnus to Claudiopolis and thence to Kelenderis or Seleucia; (5) from Iconium or Caesarea Mazaca through the Cilician Gates (Gulek Boghaz, 3,3ooft.) to Tarsus; (6) from Caesarea to the valley of the Sarus, and thence to Flaviopolis on the Cilician plain; Germanicia (Marash) is the name of this pass.
In the Anti-Taurus region (in the sense of the ranges from south of Sivas down to the Taurus), the chief passes are those followed by old roads: from Sivas (Sebasteia) to Divrik (Teph rike) and the upper valley of the western Euphrates; from Sivas to Malata (Melitene) by the pass of Delikli Tash and the basin of the Tokhma Su, and from Kaisarie to Marash (Germanicia) by the Kuru Chai and the valley of Geuksun (Cocysus). The Giaour Dagh (Amanus Range) is crossed by two famous passes : Baghche (Amanides Pylae), with the road from the Cilician plain to Apamea Zeugma on the Euphrates, and Beilan (Pylae Syriae or Syrian Gates), with the Roman road from Tarsus to Syria.
The valleys of the Maeander, Hermus and Caicus give ways from the plateau to the Aegean and the descent to the Sea of Marmora along the Kara Su and Sangarius is easy. The best roads from the plateau to the Black sea are those due to the Romans, from Taviurn and Sebasteia to Sinope and Amisus and those from Sebasteia to Cotyora and Cerasus-Pharnacia.
The subterranean drainage, added to the tectonic instability, accounts to some extent for the number of thermal and mineral springs. The most important are :—Yalova, in the Ismid sanjak; Brusa, Chitli, Terje and Eskishehr, in the Brusa vilayet; Tuzla, in the Karasi ; Cheshme, Ilija, Hierapolis (with enormous alum deposits), and Alashehr, in the Aidin; Terzili Hammam and Iskelib in the Angora; Boli in the Kastamuni; and Khaysa, in the Sivas. Many of these were famous in antiquity and occur in a list given by Strabo. The Maeander valley is especially noted for its hot springs.
The southern and western coasts have a Mediterranean climate, with a tendency towards greater extremes of temperature than is the case further west. The summers are warmer and drier, with less rain, and there is greater cold in winter than on the French or Italian Riviera. A great feature is the inbat or strong north wind which blows fiercely almost daily from noon to sunset off the sea in summer along the west coast. Cold winds from the Russian steppe are felt as far south as Smyrna in winter. The fig, olive and vine are grown everywhere, while on the west coast the ilex, plane, oak, valonia oak and pine predominate. The mountain slopes of the Taurus are clad with forests of oak and fir and there are numerous "yailas" or grassy "alps" with abun dant water to which the villagers and nomads move with their flocks during the summer months. The sheltered southern valleys produce the orange, lemon, citron, sugar cane and date palm.
The interior plateau region is more allied to the Russian steppe in both climate and vegetation. The rainfall is slight, being less than Loin. per annum on an average, and what rain occurs falls in spring or early summer. The seasonal range of temperature is extreme, conditions becoming more continental towards the Ar menian Highlands in the east, which experience a heavy snow fall in winter. Near streams willows, poplars and chestnut grow, but elsewhere the country is almost entirely steppe or scrubland.
The wild animals include the bear, boar, chamois, fallow, red and roe-deer, gazelle, hyena, ibex, jackal, leopard, lynx, moufflon, wild sheep and wolf. Amongst domestic animals are the buffalo, the Syrian camel, and a mule camel bred from a Bactrian sire and a Syrian mother. A large number of sheep and Angora goats are reared on the plateau, and fair horses are bred on the Uzan Yaila, while small hardy oxen are largely bred for ploughing and transport. The larger birds are the bittern, great and small bus tard, eagle, francolin, goose, partridge, sand grouse, pelican, pheasant, stork and swan. The rivers and lakes are well supplied with fish. (X.) Ethnologically Asia Minor forms a unit with Arabia, and the latter country will therefore be treated with the former in the present article.
Owing to the important ancient empires which flourished in the Near East this region has in places been thoroughly explored, and although much remains to be done, there are already abundant materials for reconstructing the racial history. Asia Minor re mains at present the least known country.
Zumoffen found near Antioch skeletal remains which are al leged to be Neanderthaloid, although no complete report has yet been published. Turville-Petre found in a cave near the Sea of Galilee the remains of a skull which, though differing in certain respects from the Neanderthal clearly belongs to this type. The Mousterian culture associated with this type of man is widely spread throughout the region, and has been proved by Buxton to extend even into the desert regions between the Jordan and the Euphrates, although no remains of man have actually been found in the valley of the twin rivers ; either they are covered by living on the high desert which to-day is only penetrated at cer tain seasons by Bedouin. Palaeolithic implements of a later date are also found in the same regions, but none have so far been found in the valley of the twin rivers; either they are covered by silt or else the region was at this early period too marshy for habitation. The earliest type of man known in this area comes from graves of about 3,00o B.C., a type which in form is almost identical with the people who were living in Europe in Aurigna cian times and who survive to-day in remote places, Fleure hav ing found them on the Plynlimmon moorland. This very long headed, slender stock still forms to-day the main part of the Arab population of much of the Near East. Two other types ap pear in early times in northern Mesopotamia and over all the northern part of the Near East, one type identical with what is usually called "the Mediterranean race." They are long-headed but their skulls are much more round in contour than the Euraf rican type mentioned above. The third type is round-headed and has been called Armenoid owing to the prevalence of this type among the modern Armenians. They are especially associated with the bridgeland of mountains which stretches from the Pamir westwards into Asia Minor, and ultimately to the Alps. Von Luschan considered that they were the oldest inhabitants of Asia Minor, and though they may have been the first dwellers in the mountains they were certainly late comers into the plains. On the whole the racial history of the entire region has consisted of the gradual blending of these three stocks since the dawn of history, but the Armenoid types have probably increased in a larger proportion than the others.
The modern populations consist of different groupings of these main racial stocks and can be most conveniently divided partly on a geographical and partly on a political and linguistic basis. There are four main areas: first, Turkey, including Turkey proper, Armenia and Cyprus; secondly, Syria and Palestine; thirdly, Mesopotamia ; and fourthly, Arabia. Within these larger areas the most important groups may be summarized as follows: in the first, Turks, Greeks, Kurds, Armenians and various reli gious communities, who are endogamous and often keep them selves apart from the rest of the population. In Syria and Palestine, although there are representatives of the groups already men tioned, the three most important groups are the Jews, Arabs and again certain important religious communities, the most notice able being the Druses and Maronites of the Lebanon district. In Mesopotamia the bulk of the population are Arabs, although there are important racial differences.
Apart from aberrant groups there are several different forms of social organization, the dividing lines cutting across one another. On a basis of religion there is a profound cleavage be tween Muslim and Christian, though even here there are cer tain intermediate people, Linobambakoi, Linsey-woolsies, who to a certain extent show, at least on the surface, the characters of both. Environment and natural surroundings have been prac tically responsible for three types of social organization, urban, common to Jew, Christian and Muslim, agricultural also common to the three though to a lesser extent to the Jews, except in ancient and in very modern times, and pastoral nomadism, prac tised almost entirely by the desert and steppe dweller. The Mus lim communities are, at least in theory, polygamous, though polyg amy is becoming increasingly uncommon. The women were se cluded and never saw any men except their husbands and their immediate relations, though naturally among the poorer classes this rule did not hold, for they had to work in the fields or go to market. As a general rule the towns are mixed, though different religions have different quarters, both mixed and pure Turk or Christian villages exist, and in Palestine there are Jewish com munities. In the desert the group of tents is organized on a war footing in which the sheikh has an absolute position, unlike the position of the elected or appointed village elder. Among the more powerful tribes the groups are organized into a single unit, this unit being not infrequently at war with its neighbours. This re gion gave birth to three of the great religions of the world, Chris tianity, Judaism and Islam. It still is the home of innumerable heretical cults of all these three religions. They have all influ enced one another, and some of the sects partake of the nature of more than one of these mutually intolerant religions. Of these heretical sects the most interesting are the various crypto Chris tians, outwardly Muslims, secretly Christians, the Druses and Maronites, the Dancing Dervishes, the Yezidis or Devil wor shippers and the Babis.