Bahai Faith

BAHA'I FAITH, the religion founded by Baha'u'llah (b. 1817, in Persia, d. 1892 at `Akka, Palestine) who, after the mar tyrdom of his forerunner, the Bab (see BABirsM), was imprisoned in Tihran and exiled successively to Baghdad, Constantinople, Adrianople and to `Akka. His fundamental teachings are: that God is unknowable except through His Manifestation, the Prophet ; that divine revelation is continuous and progressive, man's spiritual and social evolution proceeding in cycles of ap proximately i,000 years; that while outwardly different as to human personality the Manifestations are in essence one being and reveal one evolving truth; that the divine command for this age is to unify humanity within one faith and one order; and that religion, in its consummation, is not only a sacred law for the guid ance of individual souls but also the supreme law for society and civilization.

Baha'u'llah left a testament appointing his eldest son, `Abdu'1 Baha, Interpreter and Exemplar of the religion. Before the out break of the World War, `Abdu'l-Baha journeyed to Egypt, Europe and America to promulgate the Baha'i principles of uni versal peace, giving public warning of imminent social upheavals. Under 'Abdu'l-Baha's testament (d. at Haifa, Palestine, 1921), Shoghi Effendi, Baha'u'llah's great grandson, was constituted First Guardian of the faith and Head of the Future Universal House of Justice provided in Baha'u'llah's writings. Baha'i communities exist today in forty countries of East and West, more than five hundred in Persia alone and some ninety in North America. A biennial volume (The Bahci'i World) records the activities and progress of the cause.

Works of Baha'u'llah in English: Kitdb-I-Iqan (Book of Certitude) , Gleanings from the Writings of Baha'u'llah, Hidden Words, Tablets, Baha'i Scriptures. II. Works of `Abdu'1 Baha in English: Some Answered Questions, Tablets (three vols.), Wisdom of 'Abdul-Baha , Mysterious Forces of Civilization, Promul gation of Universal Peace (two vols.) Baha'i Scriptures. III. Works of Shoghi Effendi: Band'i Administration, The World Order of Baha'u'llah. IV. Books about the faith: Baha'u'lldh and the New Era, by J. E. Esslemont; The Band'i Proofs, by Abu'l-Fadl; The Promise of all Ages, by Christophil; The Dawn-Breakers: Nabil's Narrative of the Early Days of the Baha'i Revelation; The Band'i World (five vols. to 1935) . (H. HoL.) BAHAMAS (Lucayos), an archipelago of the British West Indies, estimated to consist of 29 islands, 661 cays and 2,387 rocks, extending along a line from Florida on the north-west to Haiti on the south-east, between Cuba and the open Atlantic, over a distance of about 63om., from 8o° 50' to 72° 50' W. and 22° 25' to 26° 4o' N. Total estimated land area 5,45o sq.m., of which the main islands occupy 4,424 sq.m. Pop. (1933) 62,679, including about 12,000 whites. The main islands and groups, beginning from the north-west are : Little and Great Abaco, with Great Bahama to the west; Eleuthera (probably corrupted from Spanish Isla de Tierra) Cat, Watling or Guanahani, and Rum cay on the outer line towards the open ocean, with New Providence, the Exuma chain and Long Island forming an inner line to the west ; still farther west Andros (a group of islands divided by narrow straits) ; and finally the Crooked islands, Mayaguana and Inagua. The Turks and Caicos islands continue the outer line, and belong geographically to the archipelago, but not politically. The surrounding seas are shallow for the most part, but there are three well-defined channels—the Florida or New Bahama channel, between the north-western islands and Florida, followed by the Gulf Stream, the Providence channels (north-east and north-west) from which a depression known as the Tongue of Ocean extends south along the east side of Andros, and the old Bahama channel, between the archipelago and Cuba. The Andros Islands are 95m. long; area 1,60o sq.m. Great Abaco is Tom. long; area 68o sq.m. Great Inagua, 34m. long, is 53o sq.m. in area ; and Grand Bahama 66m. with area 43o sq.m. The most important island, as containing the capital, Nassau, is New Providence, only 19im. in length; area 85 sq.m. This island had a population in 1933 of The next most important island is Eleuthera (6,048) , followed by the Andros Islands (7,417), Long Island (4,684), Abaco (4,318), Cat Island (4,155), Grand Bahama (2.353), Exuma (3,925), Ack lin's Island (1,8o8), Crooked Island Physical Geography.—The islands are of coral foundation and low-lying. Except in the considerable island of Andros there are no streams in the whole group. The inhabitants derive their water supply from wells. Owing to the porosity of the rock, many wells rise and fall with the tides of the sea. An artificial lake in New Providence, made for the use of turtle-catchers, is noted as exhibiting extraordinary phosphorescence. So called "banana holes," regular and up to 4oft. deep, frequently occur in the lime stone and are caused (like the Jamaica "light holes") by the action of carbonic acid in rain-water. The "Mermaid's Pool" in New Providence, which is deeper still, is partly filled with water. The rock also weathers into pinnacles, pillars and arches.

Geology.

The Bahamas consist almost entirely of aeolian deposits (see BERMUDAS) and coral reefs. The deposits which form the greater part of the island frequently rise in rounded hills to a height of Ioo or 2ooft., and in Cat Island to the highest eleva tion of nearly 400ft. The material is largely calcareous, derived from the disintegration of coral reefs and from the shells of ani mals living in the shallows. The rock on the surface is hard but underneath it gradually softens and furnishes an admirable stone for building, which can be sawn into blocks of any size, hardening on exposure to the atmosphere. On Andros there is a fine white marl almost resembling a chalky ooze. The coral reefs are of special interest in reference to the study of such formations.

Nassau.

The scenery of the islands is enchanting, gaining beauty from the splendid colouring of the sea and the rich vegeta tion. Nassau is a favoured winter health-resort for many visitors from the United States and Canada. It lies on a safe harbour on the north shore of New Providence, sheltered by the small Hog Island. There is a depth of 14f t. at low-water spring-tide on the bar. The town extends along the shore and up a slight ridge behind it. It contains the principal public buildings, and some old forts, from the 18th century, though the subterranean works below Fort Charlotte are earlier. From the same century dates an octagonal building formerly a , gaol, now a good public library. The sea-bathing is excellent. February and March are the prin cipal season for visitors. There is direct connection with New York by steamers, which make the journey in about four days; and also with Miami in Florida.

Climate, Flora, Fauna.

The climate is agreeable. Mean temperature of hottest months (June to September) 88° F., of coldest (Jan. to March) 6o°. The prevalent winds are from the north-east or east. Hurricanes occur from July to October, and May to October are the rainy months. The average annual rain fall at Nassau is I8in. The soil is generally shallow but very fertile. A well-defined area in New Providence is known as the "pine barrens" (Pines cubensis). Elsewhere three types of soil are distinguished—a black soil, of decayed vegetable matter, where the land is under forest, a reddish clay, and a white soil occurring along the shores. Andros Island and the Abaco Islands may be especially noted for their abundance of large timber, in cluding mahogany, fustic, lignum vitae, iron and bullet woods. The want both of labour and of roads renders it impossible to turn this valuable timber to useful account, though attempts have been made to work it in Abaco. The produce includes tamarinds, olives, oranges, lemons, limes, citrons, pomegranates, pine-apples, figs, sapodillas, bananas, sour-sops, melons, yams, potatoes, gourds, cucumbers, pepper, cassava, prickly pears, sugarcane, ginger, coffee, indigo, Guinea corn and pease. Tobacco and cascarilla bark also flourish; and cotton is indigenous and was woven into cloth by the aborigines. Sisal is grown in increasing quantity. The cultivation of tomatoes is making considerable progress. A fair export trade in canned pine-apples has grown up. The extensive areas covered with pine forests are only partially exploited. The Board of Agriculture, which ceased to exist in 1910, was re established in 1912 on broader lines. With the advice of the Marine Products Board the sponge industry is being pursued more scientifically.

There are many varieties of birds, including flamingoes, hum ming birds, wild geese, ducks, pigeons, hawks, green parrots and doves. The waters swarm with fish and the turtles caught here are particularly fine. There are good salt ponds, but their working has decreased. The portion of Nassau harbour known as the Sea Gardens has a beautiful development of marine organisms.

Government, Trade, etc.

The colony is under a British Governor, with an executive council of nine members, partly official, partly unofficial, and a legislative council of nine members nominated by the Crown. There is also a legislative assembly of 29 members, representing 15 electoral districts; the franchise being exercised by all white men of 21 years of age at least. The members' qualification is the possession of real or personal estate to the value of £200. Revenue rose from f84,386 in 1910– II to the record figure of f852,573 in 1922-23. In 1926 it was L502,202. The expenditure in 1910-11 was L85.315; in 1924 The reason for the increase in revenue is to be found in the expansion in the imports of spirits, resulting di rectly from the 18th Amendment to the Constitution of the United States in 1919. The public debt in 1926 was £ 170,000 of which £ 150,00o had been borrowed to finance a hotel company. The value of imports in 1926 was £2,159,000, of which £8io,000 was for alcoholic liquors. The value of Island exports was £407,000, of which £265,709 was for local produce, almost one-half of it sponges. The Bahamas were represented at the Canada-West Indies Conference of 1925, and were signatories to the Trade Agreement of July 8 of that year, under which such produce of the Bahamas as is dutiable in Canada receives a preference of of the duties, with a specific preference of one half cent per pound on canned pineapples, while Bahamas sponges of ma rim production are admitted free of duty, foreign sponges paying an ad valorem duty of i7-%. The Government of Canada under took to provide, within 15 months after ratification, a fortnightly mail, passenger and freight service between St. Lawrence ports in summer and other Canadian ports in winter, calling at. Bermuda, the Bahamas and Jamaica fortnightly. The Government of the Bahamas undertook to contribute £2,000 per annum towards such services when established.

The government supports elementary free schools, controlled by a nominated board of education, while committees, partly elected, exercise local supervision. There are higher schools and a Queen's college in Nassau. Nassau is the seat of a bishopric of the Church of England, created in 1861. The Bahamas are without railways, but there are good roads in New Providence and a few elsewhere. A cable connects Nassau with West Jupiter in Florida. (0.) The Bahama Islands have a romantic place in history as the gateway by which Columbus entered the New World. He reached the group in Oct., 1492, and landed at "Guanahani," renamed by him San Salvador, the identity of which has been long disputed between advocates for Cat Island, Great Turk and others. In so far as the problem has any solution, it seems likely that Watling Island was the actual landfall; and this theory received the official sanction of the Bahamas Legislature in 1926. Columbus described the islands in enthusiastic terms : "This country," he wrote, "ex cels all others as far as the day surpasses the night in splendour; the natives love their neighbours as themselves; their conversa tion is the sweetest imaginable; their faces always smiling; and so gentle and so affectionate are they, that I swear . . . there is not a better people in the world." Spain, however, had not long taken possession of the Bahamas,—under the Papal Bulls which divided the New World between Spain and Portugal—before these innocent and indolent natives were transported in large numbers to work in the mines and sugar mills of Hispaniola; and their islands were almost depopulated until English settlement began in the second quarter of the seventeenth century. Prior to this the long silence was broken only by the visit of Juan Ponce de Leon, who stopped at several islands on his quest for the miracu lous "Fountain of Youth," before making the valuable discovery of Florida.

The Spaniards made no settlements there, and in 1627 the Bahamas were included in the grant made by Charles I. of Eng land to Sir Robert Heath ; but the only result was an unimportant claim of title some generations later. By 1640 visitors were coming from Bermuda, and in 1647-49 the Company of Eleuthe rian Adventurers was formed in London for the systematic de velopment of the islands, proprietary rights being granted with a charter providing for government with representative and elec tive elements. This grant led to the settlement of Eleuthera and, shortly after, of New Providence. The latter possessing the best harbour, soon became the island upon whose fortunes the history of the whole group turned. In spite of the success thus achieved Charles II. in 1670 granted the islands to the Duke of Albemarle and five other proprietors of Carolina. A year later John Went worth who had already been elected governor by the settlers was appointed by the new proprietors; and a parliamentary system of government, centred on New Providence, was established, with the aim of being as near as conveniently possible to the constitu tion of England. The proprietary regime, although prolific in theoretical schemes for the development of the islands, did not save them from frequent depredations by Spaniards and French. The settlement was almost destroyed in 1684; and in 1703-04 the two powers joined to expel most of the inhabitants from the re cently founded city of Nassau. At this time also the island became a favourite resort of pirates, chief among whom was the no torious Edward Teach, called Blackbeard, who was killed in 1718.

Throughout the proprietary period the career of the Bahamas was a stormy one. Little was done for their protection, although appeals to Jamaica brought considerable help from that island. The king himself had to order the proprietors to act against the pirates in 1684. Eleven years later a fort was begun, and the city named Nassau in honour of William III. The governors themselves were drawn into privateering enterprises; Parliament was far from docile; and in 1690 the governor trained his guns on their chamber. Conflicts between government and people increased after the sack of Nassau in 1703 ; and by 1708 official recommendations were being made for direct Crown control. Eng lish merchants petitioned; and after an uncertain period during which the proprietary governors received royal approval—usually with difficulty—the proprietors in 1717 surrendered the civil and military government to the King. An official preamble stated that "by reason of the great neglect of the proprietors of the Bahama islands, the Government of the said islands is fallen into great disorder and confusion"; and Capt. Woodes Rogers was appointed first royal governor, arriving in 1718. From this time there was a continuous line of royal governors under whom the constitution was revised, the population and resources increased, and the colony's motto made possible : expulsis piratis commercia restituta. William Shirley, formerly governor of Massachusetts, was appointed to the office in 176o; and during the War of Ameri can Independence the Bahamas grew considerably in importance. The young American navy captured New Providence in 1776, but soon abandoned it. Five years later it was taken by the Spaniards, and cleverly recaptured in 1783, after the Peace of Versailles had already provided for its restoration to England. The emigration of American loyalists from the mainland brought many immigrants to the Bahamas, where estates were granted to them. Among the newcomers was Lord Dunmore, formerly gov ernor of New York and of Virginia, who became governor from 1786-97. The constitution was again reformed, and in 1787 the proprietors surrendered their remaining rights for the sum of £12,000. The increase of population brought a corresponding in crease of wealth, and also introduced large numbers of slaves to work on the cotton and other plantations. Cotton cultivation, however, was unlucky. Pests destroyed the crops in 1788 and in 1794, and cotton declined steadily in importance early in the nineteenth century. The abolition of slavery was accomplished in the Bahamas as easily as in any British colony. Free negroes were given the vote in 1830, and after 1834-35 political careers were open to all. Many planters, however, emigrated as the abolitionist movement in England gained strength; and when, after the opposition of the Assembly, the slaves were freed in 1838, at a cost of £128,296, paid in compensation, a decline in the agricultural industries followed. The great cotton plantations fell into decay, and the later sisal hemp and pineapple plantations often gave way to tomato-growing and--until pests again worked havoc—to orange groves and grapefruit orchards. Cultivation of the last-named was later stimulated by the growing tourist traffic, and an attempt has also been made to revive the production of cotton.

In 1804 the authority of the Bahamas government was extended over the Turks and Caicos islands, which, though discovered in the i6th century, had been used only for casual salt-raking visits prior to the American War. The Bermudans, who had the greatest interest in the salt-ponds, made vigorous protest, and though this was overruled, the union of the islands was never harmonious. Their commercial products were entirely different; and the pros perous salt-producing communities had to pay a larger share to the Treasury than seemed proportionate to what they received. The union was dissolved in 1848, although the Turks and Caicos islands remained ecclesiastically, as they were geographically, part of the Bahamas group. Politically, they were now joined to Jamaica. The fertility of the islands had been a source of profit to the Bahamas, which suffered correspondingly after their removal.

During the American Civil War, the Bahama islands enjoyed a wave of extraordinary prosperity, due to the closing of the Southern ports, and the consequent blockade-running. Their trade increased between twenty and thirty-fold, and some of the wealth was used in the erection of public works. The greater part, how ever, brought little advantage to the colony as a whole, and a devastating hurricane in 1866 may be regarded as effectively clos ing the era of prosperity. Meanwhile arrangements had been made for better steamship communications with New York; and from the beginning of the 20th century great improvement was made in this way. The Bahamas became a popular tourist resort for the United States, with whose interests and tariff policy they are inevitably bound up. The War of 1914-18, to which the Bahamas made generous contribution, partly in conjunction with Jamaica, diverted trade still more to America ; and after the United States carried its Prohibition Amendment in 1920 a period of great pros perity came to the islands marked by the growth of investments and public works.

The Bahamans are justly proud of their long tradition of self government on the English model.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.-For the landfall of Columbus see R. T. Gould's Bibliography.-For the landfall of Columbus see R. T. Gould's article in Geog. Journal lxix. ; more generally , Sir G. T. Carter, General Descriptive Report on the Bahama Islands (Colonial Office, 1902) ; G. J. H. Northcroft, Sketches of Summerland (Nassau, 1902) ; The Bahama Islands, ed. G. B. Shuttock (Geog. Society of Baltimore, New York, 1905) ; Harcourt Malcolm, Hist. Documents relating to the Bahama Islands (Nassau, 191o) ; History of the Bahamas House of Assembly (Nassau, 1921). A. E. Aspinall, Guide to the West Indies (1927) ; The current Handbook of the Bahama Islands. Students should consult the bibliographies under WEST INDIES, and the List of Documents relating to the Bahama Islands in ... London (Nassau, 'gm). (G. H. G.)