EXPLORATION OF ARCTIC REGIONS Ancient Ideas.—The ancients had no actual knowledge of the polar regions. By astronomical speculations the Greeks had come to the conclusion that north of the Arctic Circle there must be midnight sun at midsummer and no sun at midwinter. The gen eral view was that the polar regions, north and south, belonged to the uninhabitable frozen zones; while according to a less scien tific notion there was a happy region north of the north wind (Boreas), where the sun was always shining and the Hyperbo reans led a peaceful life.
Pytheas.—The first traveller of history who probably ap proached the Arctic Circle was the Greek Pytheas (q.v.), from Massalia (Marseilles) , who about 325 B.C. made a voyage of dis covery northwards along the west coast of Europe. He visited Great Britain, the Orkneys, and probably also northern Norway, which he called Thule.
It is reported by Adam of Bremen (about io 7 o) that the Nor wegian king Harold Haardraade (in the 11th century) made an expedition into the Arctic sea (probably northwards) in order to examine how far it extended, but we know nothing more about this voyage.
The Icelandic annals report that a land called Svalbardi (cold side or coast) was discovered in 1194. The land was, according to the sagas, situated four days' sailing from north-eastern Ice land northwards in the Ha f sbotn (i.e., the northern termination of the sea, which was supposed to end as a bay). There can be little doubt that this land was Spitsbergen.
On his way to Greenland from Norway in the year i000 Leif Ericsson found America, certainly Labrador, and perhaps New foundland and Nova Scotia. Vinland the Good of the sagas may have referred to Nova Scotia, or it may have been a myth. A few years later Karlsefne is said to have sailed from Greenland to make a settlement in the land discovered by Leif. He found Hell uland and Markland before reaching Vinland. Hostilities with the inhabitants caused the settlers to return to Greenland in 1066. The story is probably legendary.
The Icelandic annals state that in 1347 a small Greenland ship which had sailed to Markland was afterwards storm-driven to Ice land with 17 men. This is the last known voyage made by the Norsemen of Greenland which with certainty reached America.
The discoveries of the old Norsemen extended over the north ern seas from Novaya Zemlya in the east to Labrador and New foundland in the west; they visited all Arctic lands in these regions, and explored the White sea, the Barents sea and the Greenland sea, Davis strait, and even some part of Baffin bay. They were the first navigators in history who willingly left the coasts and sailed across the open ocean, and they crossed the Atlantic between Norway and America, thereby being the real discoverers of this ocean, as well as the pioneers in oceanic navi gation. It is hardly an accident that the undertakings of England towards the west started from Bristol, where many Norwegians had settled, and which from the beginning of the 15th century had much trade with Iceland.
The Portuguese Gaspar probably rediscovered Greenland in 1500, and in 1501 Newfoundland.
Cabot's and Corte-Real's discoveries were followed by the de velopment of the Newfoundland and Labrador fisheries, and a whole fleet of English, Portuguese, Basque and Breton fishermen were soon met with in these waters, and they probably went along the Labrador coast northward as far as Hudson Strait, without having left any report of their discoveries.
It is believed, on good grounds, that expeditions (combined English-Portuguese) were sent out to the newly discovered re gions from Bristol in 1 501 and 1502. It is unknown what their discoveries were, but they may possibly have sailed along the coast of Labrador.
It is possible that Sebastian Cabot made an Arctic expedition in 1508-09, in search of a short passage to China towards the north-west, and later, in 1521, King Henry VIII. made an attempt to persuade the merchants of London to support him in sending out an expedition, under Sebastian Cabot, to the north-western countries. It is uncertain whether it ever started, but it is certain that it achieved nothing of importance.
Early in the 16th century several expeditions, including that of J. Rut (1527), tried to find a way to China through the Arctic seas, but no discoveries of importance are known to have been made in the Arctic regions.
Richard Chancelor commanded one of the ships, which was sepa rated from the two others in a gale off northern Norway on Aug. 3 ('3). Willoughby, after having sighted land in various places, probably Kolguev Island, where they landed, the coast near the Pechora river and Kanin Nos, came on Sept. 14 (24) to a good harbour on the northern coast of the Kola Peninsula. Willoughby resolved to winter there, but he and all his men perished. Chan celor rounded the North Cape, to which he or his sailing-master, Stephen Borough, gave this name. He reached Vardohus, and fol lowed the route of the Norsemen to the White sea and reached the Bay of St. Nicholas, with a monastery of this name, near the mouth of the Dvina river, where Archangel was built later. Chan celor undertook a journey to Moscow, made arrangements for commercial intercourse with Russia, and returned next year with his ship, which was, however, plundered by the Flemings, but he reached London safely with a letter from the tsar. In spite of the disaster of Willoughby and his men this expedition became of fundamental importance for the development of English trade. Chancelor's success and his so-called discovery of the passage to the White sea, which was well known to the Norwegian traders, proved to people in England the practical utility of polar voyages. It led to a charter being granted to the Muscovy Company of Merchant Adventurers, and gave a fresh impulse to Arctic dis covery. Chancelor undertook a new expedition to the White sea and Moscow in 1555; on his way home in the following year he was wrecked on the coast of Scotland and perished.
In 1556 Stephen Borough (Burrough), who had served with Chancelor, was sent out by the Muscovy Company to try to reach the river Ob, of which rumours had been heard. Novaya Zemlya, Vaigach Island, and the Kara strait were discovered. In 158o the company fitted out two vessels under Arthur Pet and Charles Jackman, with orders to sail eastwards north of Russia and Asia to the lands of the emperor of Cathay (China). They penetrated through the Kara strait into the Kara sea; but met with much ice and were compelled to return. Pet reached London on Dec. 26, Jackman wintered with his ship in Norway and sailed thence in Feb., but was never heard of again.
About 1574 the Portuguese probably made an attempt to find the north-west passage under Vasqueanes Corte-Real. They reached "a great entrance," which may have been Hudson strait, and they "passed above twentie leagues" into it, "without all im pediment of ice," "but their victailes fayling them, . . . they returned Backe agayne with ioy." Frobisher.—The opening of a profitable trade with Russia, via the White sea, inspired new life in the undertakings of England on the sea, at the same time the power of the Hanseatic mer chants, called the Easterlings, was much reduced. It was there fore only natural that the plan of seeking a north-west passage to China and India should again come to the front in England. Sir Martin Frobisher opened that long series of expeditions all of which during 30o years were sent from England in search of the north-west passage. After having attempted in vain for 15 years to find support for his enterprise, he at last obtained assistance from Ambrose Dudley, earl of Warwick, and through him the interest of Queen Elizabeth was also secured. The Muscovy Corn pany was now obliged to give a licence for the voyage in and the necessary money was found by London merchants. Frobisher sailed, on June 7, 1576, from Deptford with two small vessels of 20 and 25 tons, called the "Gabriel" and "Michael," and a small pinnace of 1 o tons. On July 8 they lost sight of the pinnace, which was seen no more. On July 1 i they sighted a high, rugged land, but could not approach it for ice. This was the east coast of Greenland, but, misled by his charts, Frobisher as sumed it to be the fictitious Frisland, which was the fabrication of a Venetian, Niccolo Zeno, who in 1S58 published a spurious narrative and map (which he pretended to have found) as the work of an ancestor and his brother in the 14th century. The Zeno map was chiefly fabricated on the basis of a map by the Swede Olaus Magnus of 1537 and the map by the Dane Claudius Clavus of the 15th century. It was accepted at the time as a work of high authority, and its fictitious names and islands con tinued to appear on subsequent maps for at least a century, and have puzzled both geographers at home and explorers in the field. These islands had also been introduced on the charts of Mercator of 1569 and of Ortelius of 1570, which were probably used by Frobisher. Evidently frightened by the sight of the great quanti ties of ice off the coast, one ship, the "Michael" left him secretly, "and retourn6d home wyth greate reporte that he was cast awaye." Frobisher continued his voyage towards the north-west in the "Gabriel" alone. On July 2g (Aug. 8) he sighted high land which he called Queen Elizabeth's Foreland. This was the southern part of Baffin Island (Resolution Island) in about 62° N. lat. He entered an inlet which he considered to be the strait of the north-west passage, and he gave it his own name (it is now Frobisher bay or Baffin island). The land was called "Meta Incognita." Frobisher was not well prepared for going much farther, and after his boat with five men had disappeared he returned home, where, unfortunately, some "gold-finders" in London took it into their heads that a piece of dark heavy stone brought back contained gold ore. This caused great excitement; it was now considered much more important to collect this precious ore than to find the north-west passage, and much larger expeditions were sent out in the two following years. As many as 15 vessels formed the third expedition of 1578, and it was the intention to form a colony with ioo men in the gold land, but this scheme was given up. Frobisher came into Hudson strait, which was at first thought to be Frobisher strait and therefore called Mistaken strait. There was an open sea towards the west, and Frobisher was certain that he could sail through to the "Mare del Sur" (Pacific Ocean) and "Kathaya," but his first goal was the "gold mines," and the vessels returned home with full loads of the ore. One of them, a buss (small ship) called the "Emmanuel," reported that on her voyage home she had first sighted Frisland on Sept. 8 (i8), but four days later she had sighted another land in the Atlantic and sailed along it till the following day; they reckoned its southern end to be in about 571° N. lat. This land soon found its place on maps and charts south-west of Iceland under the name of Buss island, and as it was never seen again it was after 1745 called "the sunken land of Buss." The explanation is that, misled by the maps, Frobisher assumed Greenland to be Frisland of the Zeno map and Baffin island was afterwards assumed to be the east coast of Greenland. When the buss on her way home sighted Greenland in about 62° N., she therefore thought it to be Frisland, but when she four days later again sighted land near Cape Farewell and her dead reckoning probably had carried her about two degrees too far south, she naturally considered this to be a new land, which puzzled geographers and navigators for centuries. Owing to a similar mistake, not by Frobisher, but by later cartographers and especially by Davis, it was afterwards assumed that Frobisher strait (and also Mistaken strait) was not in Baffin Island but on the east coast of Greenland, where they remained on the maps till the 18th century.
Davis.—John Davis, who made the next attempt to discover a north-west passage, was one of the most scientific seamen of that age. Sailing from Dartmouth on June 7 07), 1585, with two ships, he sighted on July 20 (3o) "the most deformed, rocky and mountainous land, that ever he sawe." He named it the Land of Desolation, although he understood that he had rediscovered "the shore which in ancient time was called Greenland." It was its east coast. He visited the west coast, where Frobisher had also landed mistaking it for Frisland. Davis anchored in a place called Gilbert's sound in 64° 1o' (near the present Danish settle ment of Godthaab) and had much intercourse with the Eskimo. He then, crossing the strait which bears his name, traced a por tion of its western shore southwards from about 66° 4o' N. lat. and came into Cumberland sound, which he thought to be the strait of the north-west passage, but returned home on account of contrary winds. In his second voyage (with four ships) Davis traced the western shore of Davis strait still farther southwards, and sailed along the coast of Labrador. In his third voyage (with three ships) in 1587 he advanced far up his own strait along the west coast of Greenland and reached a lofty granite island in 72° 41' N. lat., which he named Hope Sanderson. He met with ice in the sea west of this place, but reported that there was not "any yce towards the north, but a great sea, free, large, very salt and blew, and of an unsearcheable depth." By contrary winds, however, he was prevented from sailing in that direction. He sailed into Cumberland sound, but now found that there was no passage. He also passed on his way southwards the entrance to Frobisher strait, which he named Lumley inlet, and Hudson strait, without understanding the importance of the latter. The result of Davis's discoveries are shown on the Molyneux globe, which is now in the library of the Middle Temple; they are also shown on the "new map" in Hakluyt's Principal Navigation (1598-1600).
The Dutch, however, had begun to see the importance of a northern route to China and India, especially as the routes through the southern seas were jealously guarded by the Span iards and Portuguese, and after 1584 all trade with Portugal, where the Dutch got Indian goods, was forbidden. By Brunel's efforts their attention had been directed towards the north-east passage, but it was not until 1J94 that a new expedition was sent out, one of the promoters being Peter Plancius, the learned cos mographer of Amsterdam. Four ships sailed from Huysdunen on June 5, Two of these ships were under the command of Willem Barents, who sighted Novaya Zemlya, north of Matochkin Shar, on July 4; and from that date until Aug. 1 (1 1), Barents discovered the whole western coast as far as the Great Ice cape, the latitude of which he, with his admirable accuracy, determined to be 77° N. Having reached the Orange islands, he decided to return. The two other ships under the command of Cornelis Nay had discovered the Yugor strait, through which they sailed into the Kara sea on Aug. 1 (11) . They reached the west coast of Yamal ; finding the sea open, they thought they had found a free passage to Japan and China, and returned home on Aug. 11 (21) . A new expedition the following year, 1595, with seven ships under the command of Cornelis Nay and Willem Barents merely made several unsuccessful attempts to enter the Kara sea through the Yugor strait. The third expedition was more important. Two vessels sailed from Amsterdam on May 10 (2o), 1596, under the command of Jacob van Heemskerck and Corneliszoon Rijp. Barents accompanied Heemskerck as pilot, and Gerrit de Veer, the historian of the voyage, was on board as mate. They sailed northwards, and on June 9 (19) discovered Bear island. Con tinuing on the same course they sighted a mountainous snow-cov ered land in about 8o° N. lat., soon afterwards being stopped by pack ice. This important discovery was named Spitsbergen, and was believed to be a part of Greenland. Arriving at Bear island again on July 1, Rijp parted company, while Heemskerck and Barents proceeded eastward, intending to pass round the northern end of Novaya Zemlya. On Aug. 26 (Sept. 5) they reached Ice Haven, after rounding the northern extremity of the land. Here they wintered in a house built out of driftwood and planks and in the spring made their way in boats to the Lapland coast ; but Barents died during the voyage. This was the first time that an Arctic winter was successfully faced. The voyages of Barents stand in the first rank among the polar enterprises of the 16th century.
The English enterprises were continued by the Muscovy Corn pally, and by associations of merchants of London ; and even the East India Company sent an expedition under Capt. Way mouth in 1602 to seek for a passage by the opening seen by Davis, but it had no success.
The voyages of Hudson led immediately to the Spitsbergen whale fishery. English and Dutch whalers in the 17th century added much to the knowledge of Spitsbergen. Poole, Fotherby, Marmaduke, Edge and Carolus were noteworthy.
Meanwhile, the merchant adventurers of London continued to push forward the western discovery. Sir Thomas Button, with the "Resolution" and "Discovery," in 1612 entered Hudson bay, crossed to its western shore, and wintered at the mouth of a river in 57°I0' N. which was named Nelson river after the master of the ship, who died there. Next year Button explored the shore of Southampton Island as far as 65° N. An expedition under Captain Gibbons despatched in 1614 to Hudson bay was a failure; but in 1615 Robert Bylot and William Baffin in the "Discovery" examined the coasts of Hudson strait and to the north of Hudson bay. In 1616 Bylot and Baffin again set out in the "Discovery." Sailing up Davis strait they passed that navigator's farthest point at Sanderson's Hope, and sailed round Baffin bay. Baffin named the most northern opening Smith sound, after the first governor of the East India Company, and the promoter of the voyage, Sir Thomas Smith. Lancaster sound and Jones sound were named after other promoters. The fame of Baffin mainly rests upon the discovery of a great channel extending north from Davis strait; but it was unjustly dimmed for many years, owing to the omission of Purchas to publish the navigator's tabulated journal and map in his great collection of voyages. It was 20o years before a new expedition sailed north through Baffin bay. In 1619 Denmark sent out an expe dition, under the command of Jens Munk, in search of the north west passage, with two ships and 64 men. They reached the west coast of Hudson bay, where they wintered near Churchill river, but all died with the exception of one man, a boy, and Munk himself, who managed to sail home in the smallest ship.
In 1631 two expeditions were despatched, one by the mer chants of London, the other by those of Bristol. In the Lon don ship "Charles" Luke Fox explored the western side of Hud son bay as far as the place called "Sir Thomas Roe's Welcome." In Aug. he encountered Capt. James and the Bristol ship "Maria" in the middle of Hudson bay, and went north until he reached "North-west Fox his farthest," in 66° 47' N. Capt. James had to winter off Charlton Island, in James bay, the southern extreme of Hudson bay, and did not return until October 163 2.
The countrymen of Barents vied with the countrymen of Hud son in the whaling which annually brought fleets of ships to the Spitsbergen seas during the 17th and 18th centuries. Capt. Vlamingh, in 1664, advanced as far round the northern end of Novaya Zemlya as the winter quarters of Barents. In 1671 Frederick Martens, a German surgeon, visited Spitsbergen, and wrote the best account of its physical features and natural his tory that existed previous to the time of Scoresby. In 17o7 Capt. Cornelis Gilies saw land to the east of Spitsbergen in 80° N., which has since been known as Gilies Land. The Dutch geo graphical knowledge of Spitsbergen was embodied in the famous chart of Van Keulen (edited by Gilies and Rep), (c. 171o). The Dutch whale fishery continued to flourish until the French Revo lution, and formed a splendid nursery for training the seamen of the Netherlands.
The most flourishing period of the British fishery in the Spits bergen and Greenland seas was from 1752 to 182o. In order to encourage discovery £5,000 was offered in 1776 to the first ship that should sail beyond the 89th parallel (16 Geo. III. c. 6) . Among the numerous daring and able whaling captains, William Scoresby takes the first rank, alike as a successful whaler and a scientific observer. His admirable Account of the Arctic Regions is still a standard work. In 1806 he succeeded in advancing his ship "Resolution" as far north as 81° 12' 42". In 1822 he forced his way through the ice on the east coast of Greenland, and sur veyed that coast from 75° down to 69° N.
The Russians, after the acquisition of Siberia, succeeded in gradually exploring the whole of the northern shores of that vast region. In 1648 a Cossack named Simon Dezhneff equipped a boat expedition in the river Kolima, passed through the strait since named after Bering, and reached the Gulf of Anadir. In 1738 a voyage was made by two Russian officers from Archangel to the mouths of the Ob and the Yenisei. In 1735 Lieut. T. Chelyuskin got as far as 77° 2 5' N. near the cape which bears his name ; and in 1743 he rounded that most northern point of Siberia in sledges, in 77° 43' N. Captain Vitus Bering, a Dane, was appointed by Peter the Great to command an expedition in 1725. Two vessels were built at Okhotsk, and in July 1728 Ber ing ascertained the existence of a strait between Asia and America. In 174o Bering sailed from Okhotsk in the "St. Paul," with G. W. Steller on board as naturalist. Their object was to dis cover the American side of the strait, and they sighted the peak named by Bering Mt. St. Elias. The Aleutian islands were also explored, but the ship was wrecked on an island named after the ill-fated discoverer. Bering died there on Dec. 8, 1741.
Thirty years after the death of Bering a Russian merchant named Lyakhov discovered the New Siberian or Lyakhov islands. These islands were more fully explored by an officer named Hedenstrom in 1809, and seekers for fossil ivory annually re sorted to them.
From 1773 onwards to the end of the 19th century the objects of polar exploration were mainly the acquisition of knowledge in various branches of science. It was on these grounds that Daines Barrington and the Royal Society induced the British Govern ment 'to undertake Arctic exploration once more. The result was that two vessels, the "Racehorse" and "Carcass," were com missioned, under Capt. J. C. Phipps. The expedition sailed on June 2, 1773, and was stopped by the ice to the north of Hakluyt headland, the north-western point of Spitsbergen. Phipps reached the Seven Islands and discovered Walden island. His highest latitude was 8o° 48' N. Five years afterwards James Cook re ceived instructions to proceed northward from Kamchatka and search for a north-east or north-west passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic. His ships, the "Resolution" and "Discovery," arrived at the edge of the ice, after passing Bering strait, in 70° 41' N. The farthest point seen on the American side was named Icy Cape, and on the Asiatic side Cape North.
The wars following the French Revolution put an end to voy ages of discovery till, after the peace of 1815, north polar research found a powerful and indefatigable advocate in Sir John Barrow. Through his influence a measure for promoting polar discovery became law in 1818 (58 Geo. III. c. 20), by which a reward of £20,000 was offered for making the north-west passage, and of £5,000 for reaching 89° N., while the commissioners of longi tude were empowered to award proportionate sums to those who might achieve certain portions of such discoveries. In 1817 Bar row obtained sanction for the despatch of two expeditions, one to attempt discoveries by way of Spitsbergen and the other by Baffin bay. The vessels for the Spitsbergen route, the "Dorothea" and "Trent," were commanded by Capt. D. Buchan and Lieut. J. Franklin, and sailed in April 1818. Driven into the pack, both vessels were severely nipped, and had to return to England. The other expedition, consisting of the "Isabella" and "Alexander," commanded by Capt. J. Ross and Lieut. E. Parry, followed in the wake of Baffin's voyage of 1616. The voyage vindicated Baffin's accuracy as a discoverer and showed the way to a lucra tive fishery in the "North Water" of Baffin bay, which continued to be frequented by a fleet of whalers every year. Ross thought that the inlets reported by Baffin were merely bays, while the opinion of his second in command was that a wide opening to the westward existed through the Lancaster sound of Baffin.
It was thought desirable that an attempt should be made to connect the Cape Turnagain of Franklin with the discoveries made by Parry during his second voyage. In 1824 three corn bined attempts were organized. While Parry again entered by Lancaster sound and pushed down Prince Regent inlet, Capt. Beechey was to enter Bering strait, and Franklin was to make a second journey by land to the shores of Arctic America. Parry was unfortunate, but Beechey entered Bering strait in the "Blossom" in Aug. 1826, and extended knowledge as far as Point Barrow in 71° 23' 30" N. lat. Franklin, in 1825-26, descended the Mackenzie river to its mouth, and explored the coast for 374m. to the westward; while Dr. Richardson discovered the shore between the mouths of the Mackenzie and Coppermine, and sighted land to the northward, named by him Wollaston Land, the dividing channel being called Union and Dolphin strait. They returned in the autumn of 1826.
Work was also being done in the Spitsbergen and Barents seas. From 1821 to 5824 the Russian Capt. Lucke was surveying the west coast of Novaya Zemlya as far as Cape Nassau. In May 1823 the "Griper." under Capt. D. Clavering, conveyed Capt. E. Sabine north to make pendulum observations. Clavering pushed through the ice in 75° 30' N., and reached the east coast of Greenland, where observations were taken on Pendulum island. He charted the coast-line from 76° to 72° N.
In 1827 Parry attempted to reach the pole from the north coast of Spitsbergen by means of sledge-boats (see PARRY). The high est latitude reached was 82° 45' N., and the attempt was perse vered in until it was found that the ice as a whole was drifting to the south more rapidly than it was possible to travel over it to the north.
In 1829 Capt. W. A. Graah of the Danish navy rounded Cape Farewell in boats. He advanced as far as 65° 16' N. on the east coast, where he was stopped by ice. He wintered in 63° 22' N., and returned to the west side of Greenland in 1830.
In the year 1829 Capt. J. Ross, with his nephew J. C. Ross, having been furnished with funds by Felix Booth, undertook an expedition in the "Victory." Ross proceeded down Prince Regent inlet to the Gulf of Boothia, and wintered on the eastern side of a land named by him Boothia Felix. J. C. Ross crossed the land and discovered the position of the north magnetic pole on the western side of it, on June 1, 1831. He also discovered a land to the westward which he named King William Land, and the northern shore of which he examined. The Rosses, unable to get their little vessel out of its winter quarters, passed three winters there, and then fell back on the stores at Fury Beach, where they passed their fourth winter, 1832-33. Eventually they were picked up by a whaler in Barrow strait, and brought home. Great anxiety was naturally felt at their prolonged absence, and in 1833 Sir George Back, with Dr. R. King, set out by land in search of the missing explorers. They left Fort Reliance on June 7, 1834, and descended the Backs (Great Fish) river for 53om. In 1836 Back was sent, at the suggestion of the Royal Geograph ical Society, to proceed to Repulse bay in the "Terror," and then to cross an assumed isthmus and examine the coastline thence to the mouth of the Backs river; but the ship was obliged to win ter in the drifting pack, and was brought home in a sinking con dition.
The tracing of the polar shores of America was completed by the Hudson's Bay Company's servants. In June 1837 Thomas Simpson and P. W. Dease left Chipewyan, reached the mouth of the Mackenzie, and connected that position with Point Barrow, which had been discovered by the "Blossom" in 1826. In Simpson passed Cape Turnagain of Franklin, tracing the coast eastward so as to connect with Back's work at the mouth of Backs river. He landed at Montreal island, and then advanced east ward as far as Castor and Pollux river. On his return he trav elled along the south shore of the King William island. Little remained to do in order to complete the delineation of the north ern shores of the American continent, and this task was entrusted to Dr. J. Rae, a Hudson's Bay factor, in 1846. He went in boats to Repulse bay, where he wintered in a stone hut nearly on the Arctic circle; and there he and his six Orkney men maintained themselves on the deer they shot. During the spring of 1847 Dr. Rae explored on foot the shores of a great gulf having loom. of coast-line. He thus connected the work of Parry, at the mouth of Fury and Hecla strait, with the work of Ross on the coast of Boothia, proving that Boothia was part of the American continent.
While British explorers were thus working hard to solve some of the geographical problems relating to Arctic America, the Russians were similarly engaged in Siberia. In 1821 P. F. Anjou made a complete survey of the New Siberian islands, and came to the conclusion that it was not possible to advance far from them in a northerly direction, owing to the thinness of the ice and to open water existing within 20 or 3om. Baron Wrangel in 1820-23 explored the coast between Cape Shelagski and the Kolima, making attempts to extend his journeys to some dis tance from the land, but he was always stopped by thin ice. In 1843 A. T. Middendorf explored the region around Cape Chel yuskin. The whole Arctic shore of Siberia had now been explored and delineated, but no vessel had yet rounded the extreme north ern point.
It was not until 1848 that anxiety began to be felt about the Franklin expedition. In the spring of that year Sir J. Ross was sent with the "Enterprise" and "Investigator," by way of Lancaster sound. He made a long sledge journey with Leopold M'Clintock along the northern and western coasts of the North Somerset, but found nothing.
On the return of the Ross expedition without any tidings, the country became thoroughly alarmed. An extensive plan of search was organized—the "Enterprise" and "Investigator" under Cap tains R. Collinson and R. M'Clure proceeding by Bering strait, while the "Assistance" and "Resolute," with two steam tenders, the "Pioneer" and "Intrepid," sailed on May 3, 1850, to renew the search by Barrow strait, under Capt. Horatio Austin. Two brigs, the "Lady Franklin" and "Sophia," under William Penny, an able whaling captain, were sent by the same route. He had with him Dr. A. Sutherland, a naturalist, who did much valuable scientific work. Austin and Penny entered Barrow strait, and Franklin's winter quarters of 1845-46 were discovered at Beechey island; but there was no record of any kind indicating the direction taken by the ships. Austin's expedition wintered (1850-51) in the pack off Griffith island, and Penny found ref uge in a harbour on the south coast of Cornwallis island. Penny undertook the search by Wellington channel. M'Clintock, who was with Austin, advanced to Melville island, marching over 770m. in 81 days; Captains E. Ommanney and S. Osborn pressed southward and discovered Prince of Wales island. W. H. Brown examined the western shore of Peel sound. The search was exhaustive; but, except the winter quarters at Beechey island, no record was discovered. Austin also examined the entrance of Jones sound on his way home, and returned to England in the autumn of 185r. This was a thoroughly well conducted expe dition, especially as regards the sledge-travelling, which M'Clin tock brought to great perfection.
In 1851 the "Prince Albert" schooner was sent out by Lady Franklin, under Capt. W. Kennedy, with Lieut. J. Bellot of the French navy as second. They wintered on the east coast of North Somerset, and in the spring of 1852 Bellot, in the course of a long sledging journey, discovered Bellot strait, thus prov ing that the Boothia coast facing the strait was the northern extremity of the continent of America.
The "Enterprise" and "Investigator" sailed from England in Jan. 1850, but accidentally parted company before they reached Bering strait. On May 6, 1851, the "Enterprise" passed the strait, and rounded Point Barrow on the 25th. Collinson then made his way up the narrow Prince of Wales strait, and reached Princess Royal islands, where M'Clure had been the previous year. Returning southwards, the "Enterprise" wintered in a sound in Prince Albert Land in 71° 35' N. and 117° 35' W. In the spring of 1852 sledge parties explored the strait and one reached Melville island. In Sept. 1852 the ship was free, and Collinson pressed eastward along the coast of Canada, reaching Cambridge bay 005° W.), where the second winter was passed. In the spring he examined the shores of Victoria Land as far as 7o° 26' N. and Ioo° 45' W.; here he was within a few miles of Point Victory, where the fate of Franklin would have been ascertained. The "Enterprise" again put to sea on Aug. 5, 1853, and returned westward along the Canadian coast, until she was stopped by ice and obliged to pass a third winter at Camden bay, in I45° 29' W. In 1854 Collinson brought the "Enterprise" back to England.
Meanwhile M'Clure, in the "Investigator," had passed the win ter of 1850-51 at the Princess Royal islands, only 3om. from Barrow strait. In Oct. M'Clure ascended a hill whence he could see the frozen surface of Barrow strait, but it was impossible to reach it on account of heavy ice; so, as soon as he was free in i851, -M'Clure turned southwards, round the southern extreme of Banks island, and forced a passage to the northward. He at length reached a bay on the northern shore of Banks island, which he named the Bay of God's Mercy. Here the "Investi gator" remained, never to move again. After the winter of 1851-52 M'Clure made a journey across the ice to Melville island. In the spring of 1853 M'Clure was preparing to aban don the ship with all hands, and attempt, like Franklin's crews, to reach the Canadian coast ; but succour arrived in time.
The Hudson's Bay Company continued the search for Frank lin. In 1848 Sir John Richardson and Dr. Rae examined the Canadian coast from the mouth of the Mackenzie to that of the Coppermine. In 1849 and 1850 Rae continued the search; and by a long sledge journey in the spring of 1851, and a boat voyage in the summer, he examined and mapped the shores of Wollaston and Victoria Lands, which were afterwards explored by Capt. Collinson in the "Enterprise." In 1852 the British government resolved to despatch another expedition by Lancaster sound. Sir E. Belcher commanded the "Assistance," and S. Osborn the "Pioneer." Belcher went up Wellington Channel where he spent two winters. S. Osborn and Corn. G. H. Richards made sledge journeys to Melville island, and thus discovered the northern side of the Parry group. Capt. H. Kellett received command of the "Resolute," with M'Clintock in the "Intrepid." George S. Nares, leader of the future expedi tion of 1874-75, was also on board the "Resolute." Kellett passed the winter of 1852-53 at Melville island. During the autumn G. F. Mecham discovered M'Clure's record, and the position of the "Investigator" was thus ascertained. Lieut. P. T. Pim made his way to this point early in the following spring, and the officers and crew of the "Investigator," led by M'Clure, arrived safely on board the "Resolute" on June 17, 1853. They reached England in the following year, having not only discovered but traversed a north-west passage, though not in the same ship and partly by travelling over ice. For this great feat M'Clure received the honour of knighthood, and a reward of £ 10.00o was voted to himself, the other officers, and the crew. Collinson also discovered another N.W. passage.
The travelling parties of Kellett's expedition, led by M'Clin tock, Mecham and Vesey Hamilton, completed the discovery of the north and west of Melville island, and the whole outline of Prince Patrick island, farther west. M'Clintock was away from the ship with his sledge party for 105 days, and travelled over 1,328m. Mecham was away 94 days, and travelled over 1,163m. S. Osborn, in 1853, was away 97 days, and travelled over 935m. The "Resolute" was obliged to winter in the pack in and in the spring of 18J4 Mecham made a remarkable journey of 1,336m. in 70 days in the hope of obtaining news of Capt. Collin son at the Princess Royal islands.
Fearing detention for a third winter, Belcher ordered all the ships to be abandoned in the ice, the officers and crews being taken home in vessels which had come out from England to communicate. They reached home in Oct. The drift of the "Resolute" was a remarkable proof of the direction of the current out of Barrow strait. She was aban doned in 74° 41' N. and 1o1 ° i 1' W. on May 14, 1854. On Sept. 1o, 1855, an American whaler sighted the "Resolute" in 67° N. lat. about 20m. from Cape Mercy, in Davis strait. She had drifted nearly 1,o0om., and having been brought into an American port, was purchased by the United States and presented to the British Government.
In 1854 Dr. J. Rae after a winter at Repulse bay succeeded in connecting the discoveries of Simpson with those of James Ross, and thus established the fact that King William Land was an island. Rae also brought home the first tidings and relics of Franklin's expedition gathered from the Eskimo, which decided the Admiralty to award him the f 10,000 offered for definite news of Franklin's fate. Lady Franklin, however, sent out the "Fox" under the command of M'Clintock (see FRANKLIN). M'Clin tock prosecuted an exhaustive search over part of the west coast of Boothia, the whole of the shores of King William island and the mouth of Backs river, and Allen Young completed the dis covery of the southern side of Prince of Wales island.
The catastrophe of Sir John Franklin's expedition led to 7,000m. of coast-line being discovered, and to a vast extent of unknoWn country being explored, securing very considerable additions to geographical knowledge.
The American nation was first led to take an interest in polar research through sympathy for Franklin and his companions. Henry Grinnell of New York sent out in 1850 the "Advance" and "Rescue," to aid in the search. They reached Beechey island and assisted in the examination of Franklin's winter quarters. but returned without wintering. In 1853 Dr. E. K. Kane, who had been with the last expedition, undertook to lead an American expedition up Smith sound. The "Advance" was stopped by ice in 78° 45' N. only 17m. from the entrance. Kane named his winter quarters Van Rensselaer harbour. A great glacier was discovered with a sea face 45m. long and named the Humboldt glacier. Morton crossed the foot of this glacier, and reached a point of land beyond named Cape Constitution. Scurvy attacked the whole party during the second winter. In May 1855 Kane abandoned the brig, and reached the Danish settlement of Uper nivik on Aug. 5.
In July 1860 Dr. I. I. Hayes, who had served with Kane, sailed from Boston for Smith sound, in the schooner "United States." His object was to follow up the line of research opened by Dr. Kane. He wintered at Port Foulke, in 78° 17' N., but achieved nothing of importance, and his narrative is not to be depended on.
The American, Charles Hall, in his first journey (186o-62), discovered remains of a stone house which Sir Martin Frobisher built on the Countess of Warwick island in 1578. In his second expedition (1864-69) Hall reached the line of the retreat of the Franklin survivors, at Todd's island and Peffer river, on the south coast of King William island. Finally, in 1871 he took the "Polaris" for 250m. up Smith sound through Kane basin to Robeson channel and wintered in Thank God harbour, 38' N., and here Hall died.
Between 1858 and 1872 the Swedes sent several expeditions to Spitsbergen. That of 1864 under A. E. Nordenskiold and N. C. Duner explored the north-east coasts of Spitsbergen. In 1872 an expedition, consisting of the "Polhem" and "Gladen," com manded by Nordenskiold and L. Palander, wintered in Mossel bay in the north of Spitsbergen. In the spring an important sledg ing journey of 6o days' duration was made over North-East Land. The expedition was in some distress as regards supplies, but in the summer of 1873 they were visited by Mr. Leigh Smith, in his yacht "Diana," and supplied with fresh provisions.
Dr. A. Petermann of Gotha urged his countrymen to take their share in the work of polar discovery, and at his own risk he fitted out the "Germania," which sailed in May 1868, under Capt. K. Koldewey who, failing to reach east Greenland, cruised on the east of Spitsbergen. In 1870 Baron von Heuglin with Count Zeil explored Stor Fjord. In 1868 a two years' expedition was organized under Koldewey, consisting of the "Germania" and the "Hansa." Julius Payer, the future explorer of Franz Josef Land, was on board the "Germania." The expedition sailed from Bremen on June 15, 1869, for the east coast of Greenland. In latitude 70° 46' N. the "Hansa" was separated from her consort and crushed in the ice. The crew built a house of patent fuel on the floe. The current carried them to the south, and finally, on June 14, 187o, they arrived safely at the Moravian mission station of Friedriksthal, to the west of Cape Farewell. The "Germania" sailed up the east coast of Greenland as far as 75° 30' N., and wintered at the Pendulum Islands of Clavering in 74° 30' N. In March 1870 a party under Koldewey and Payer reached Cape Bismarck, the northern limit of their discoveries. A deep branching fjord, named Franz Josef fjord, was discovered in 73° 15' N. The expedition returned to Bremen on Sept. 11, 1870. After examining the edge of the ice and possible routes to the north between Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya in the "Isbjorn" in 1871, Payer and K. Weyprecht organized an Austro-Hungarian expedition in 1872. They hoped to make the north-east passage. The "Tegethoff" left Tromso on July 14, 1872. The vessel was closely beset near Cape Nassau, at the north of Novaya Zemlya, in the end of Aug., and drifted in the direction of the prevailing wind. At length, on Aug. 31, 1873, a mountainous country was sighted about 14m. to the north. In Oct. the vessel was within 3m. of an island lying off the main mass of land. Payer landed on it, and found the latitude to be 54' N. It was named after Count Wilczek, one of the warmest friends of the expedition. Here the second winter was passed. In 1874 Payer made several long sledge journeys. The whole country was named Franz Josef Land. In May it became necessary to aban don the ship and retreat in boats; on Aug. 14 the explorers reached the edge of the pack in 77° 40' N., and launched the boats. Eventually they were picked up by a Russian schooner and arrived at Vardo on Sept. 3, One of the most interesting problems connected with the phys ical geography of the polar regions is the actual condition of the elevated ice-covered interior of Greenland. In 1867 Mr. Edward Whymper and Dr. Robert Brown tried to penetrate the interior, but their progress was stopped, after going a short dis tance over the ice, by the breaking down of the dog-sledges. The expedition brought home geological and natural history col lections of value. Dr. H. Rink, for many years royal inspector of South Greenland, also visited the inland ice. An important inland journey was undertaken by A. E. Nordenskiold in 187o, accompanied by S. Berggren. Nordenskiold chose for a starting point the northern arm of Auleitsivikfjord, and advanced 35m. to a height of 2,2ooft.
The enterprises of other countries rekindled the zeal of Great Britain for Arctic discovery; and in 1875 the British Government dispatched the "Alert" and "Discovery," under Capt. G. S. Nares. Corn. A. H. Markham, Lieut. Aldrich, and Capt. H. W. Feilden, R.A., as naturalist, were also in the "Alert." The "Discovery" was commanded by Capt. H. F. Stephenson, with Lieut. L. A. Beaumont as first lieutenant. The expedition entered Smith sound in the last days of July. Lady Franklin bay was reached in 81° 44' N., where the "Discovery" was established in winter quarters. The "Alert" pressed onwards, and reached the edge of the heavy ice named by Nares the palaeocrystic sea, the ice-floes being from 8o to 1 oof t. in thickness. Leaving Robeson channel, the vessel made progress and passed the winter off the open coast and facing the great polar pack, in 82° 2 7' N. Sledge parties started on April 3, 1876. Markham with Lieut. A. A. C. Parr advanced over the pack to 83° 20' N., at the time a record northern latitude. Aldrich explored the coast-line to the west ward for a distance of 220M. Beaumont made discoveries of great interest along the northern coast of Greenland. The parties were attacked by scurvy, which increased the difficulty and hardships of the work a hundredfold. The expedition returned to England in Oct. 1876. The "Alert" reached a higher latitude and win tered farther north than any ship had ever done before.
In the same year 1875 Sir A. Young in his steam yacht the "Pandora" entered Peel sound, reached a latitude of 72° 14' N., and sighted Cape Bird. But here he was obliged to retrace his track, returning to England. In 1876 Sir A. Young made another voyage in the "Pandora" to the entrance of Smith sound.
Koolemans Beynen, a young Dutch officer, who had shared Young's two polar voyages, on his return successfully endeavoured to interest his countrymen in polar discovery. It was wisely determined that the first expeditions of Holland should be sum mer reconnaissances on a small scale. The schooner "Willem Barents" was commanded by Lieut. A. de Bruyne, with Beynen as second, and sailed from Holland on May 6, 1878. Her instruc tions were to examine the ice in the Barents and Spitsbergen seas, take deep-sea soundings, and make natural history collec tions. She was also to erect memorials to early Dutch polar worthies at certain points. These instructions were ably carried out. Beynen died in the following year, but the work he initiated was carried on, the "Willem Barents" continuing to make annual polar cruises for many years.
In 1879 Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain A. H. Markham, in the "Isbjorn" sailed along the west coast of Novaya Zemlya to its most northern point, passed through the Matochkin Shar to the east coast, and examined the ice in the direction of Franz Josef Land as far as 78° 24' N.
In 188o Mr. B. Leigh Smith, who had previously made three voyages to Spitsbergen, reached Franz Josef Land in the steam yacht "Eira." The "Eira" sailed along the south side of Franz Josef Land to the westward and discovered 1 1 om. of coast-line of a new island named Alexandra Land, until the coast trended north-west. In the following year Leigh Smith sailed again for Franz Josef Land and continued his work to the west. But in Aug. the ship was caught in the ice and sank. A hut was built on shore in which Leigh Smith and his crew passed the winter of 1881-82, their health being well maintained, thanks to the exertions of Dr. W. H. Neale. On June 21, 1882, they started in four boats to reach some vessels on the Novaya Zemlya coast. They were seen and welcomed by the "Willem Barents" on Aug. 2, and soon afterwards were taken on board the "Hope," a whaler which had come out to search for them under the com mand of Sir A. Young.
In 1879 an enterprise was undertaken in the United States, with the object of throwing further light on the fate of Frank lin's expedition, by examining the west coast of King William island in the summer, when the snow is off the ground. The party consisted of Lieut. F. Schwatka of the United States army and three others. Wintering near the entrance of Chesterfield Inlet in Hudson bay, they set out overland for the estuary of Backs river on April 1, 1879, and crossed over to King William island in June. They examined the western shore of the island as far as Cape Felix. The return journey was commenced in Nov. by ascending Backs river for some distance and then marching over the intervening region to Hudson bay. Some graves were found, as well as a medal belonging to Lieut. Irving of H.M.S. "Terror." Mr. Gordon Bennett, the proprietor of the New York Herald, having resolved to despatch an expedition of discovery at his own expense by way of Bering strait, the "Pandora" was pur chased from Sir A. Young and rechristened the "Jeannette." Lieut. de Long of the United States navy was appointed to com mand, and it was made a national undertaking by special act of Congress. The "Jeannette" sailed from San Francisco on July 8, 1879, and was last seen steaming towards Wrangel island on Sept. 3. The "Jeannette" was provisioned for three years, but as no tidings had been received of her by 1881, two steamers were sent up Bering strait in search. One of these, the "Rodgers," under Lieut. R. M. Berry, explored Wrangel island. No news was obtained of the "Jeannette," but soon afterwards melancholy tidings arrived from Siberia. After having been beset in heavy pack ice for 22 months, the "Jeannette" was crushed and sunk on June 13, 1881, in 77° 15' N. lat., and 155° E. long. The officers and men dragged their boats over the ice to an island which was named Bennett Island, where they landed on July 29. They reached one of the New Siberian islands on Sept. •I o, and on the i 2th they set out for the mouth of the Lena. But in the same evening the three boats were separated in a gale of wind. A boat's crew with G. W. Melville, the engineer, reached the Lena delta and searching for the other parties found the ship's books on Nov. 14, and the dead bodies of De Long and two of his crew on March 23, 1882. Three survivors of De Long's party had succeeded in making their way to a Siberian village; but the third boat's crew was lost.
The Danes have been very active in prosecuting discoveries and scientific investigations in Greenland, since the journey of Nordenskiold in 187o. Lieut. J. A. D. Jensen made an attempt to penetrate the inland ice in 1878. In 1879 Captain L. A. Mourier, of the Danish "Ingolf," sighted the E. coast and was enabled to delineate it from 68° 10' N. to 65° 55' N., this being the gap left between the discoveries of Scoresby in 1822 and those of Graah in 5829. Nansen sighted part of the same coast in 1882. Lieut. Hovgaard planned an expedition to ascertain if land existed to the north of Cape Chelyuskin. He fitted out "Dymphna" and sailed in July 1882, but was unfortunately• beset and obliged to winter in the Kara sea. In 1883 A. E. Nordenskiold undertook another journey over the inland ice of Greenland. Starting from Auleitsivikfjord his party penetrated 84m. eastward, to an altitude of 5,000f t. The Laplanders who were of the party were sent farther on snowshoes, travelling to a height of 6,600f t.
Danish expeditions under Lieut. G. Holm explored the east coast of Greenland from Cape Farewell northwards between 1883 and 1885, and at Angmagsalik they encountered a tribe of Eskimo who had never seen white men before. Lieuts. C. H. Ryder and T. V. Garde continued the exploration of East Green land, and Ryder explored Scoresby fjord.
Swedes: Ice fjord, Spitsbergen (Professor N. Ekholm) .
Dutch: Port Dickson, mouth of Yenisei, Siberia (Dr. M. Snellen).
Russians: Sagastyr island, mouth of Lena, Siberia (Lieut. N. D. Jiirgens).
Novaya Zemlya, 23' N. (Lieut. C. Andreiev).
Finns: Sodankyla, Finland (Professor S. Lemstrom).
Americans: Point Barrow, Alaska (Lieut. P. H. Ray, U.S.A.).
Lady Franklin Bay, 80 44' N. (Lieut. A. W. Greely, U.S.A.).
British: Great Slave Lake, Canada (Lieut. H. P. Dawson). Germans: Cumberland Bay, Baffin island (Dr. W. Giese).
Danes: Godthaab, Greenland (Dr. A. Paulsen). Austrians: Jan Mayen (Lieut. E. V. Wohlgemuth).
The whole scheme was successfully accomplished with the exception of the part assigned to the Dutch at Port Dickson. They started in the "Varna" but were beset in the Kara sea and obliged to winter there. The "Varna" was lost, and the crew took refuge on board Hovgaard's vessel, which was also forced to winter in the pack during 1882-83. The scientific observa tions were kept up on both vessels during the time they were drifting with the ice.
The American stations commenced work in 1882 and one of these furnished a rare example of heroic devotion to duty in face of difficulties due to the fault of those who should have brought relief at the appointed time. Lieut. A. W. Greely's party con sisted of two other lieutenants, 20 sergeants and privates of the United States army, and Dr. O. Pavy. On Aug. I1, 1881, the "Proteus" conveyed Greely and his party to Lady Franklin bay during an exceptionally favourable season; a house was built at the "Discovery's" winter quarters, and they were left with two years' provisions. Two winters were passed without accident. Lieut. J. B. Lockwood with 12 men made a journey along the north coast of Greenland and reached Lockwood island in 83° 24' N. and 45' W., the highest latitude reached up to that time. A promontory of Greenland seen to the north-east was named Cape Washington. The party returned to Fort Conger on June 10, 1882, after an absence of 5g days. Greely made two jour neys westward into the interior of Grinnell Land following up the northern branch of Chandler fjord to Hazen lake. In the spring of 1883 Lockwood made still more extensive journeys, crossing Grinnell Land to Greely fjord. The central depression of Grin nell Land abounded in musk oxen and was free from ice, though the higher land to north and south lay under permanent ice-caps. Important as these geographical discoveries were, the main object of the expedition was the series of scientific observations at the headquarters, and these were carried out during the whole period with the most scrupulous exactness. As no relief ship came in 1882, nor in 1883, Greely started from Lady Franklin bay with his men in a steam launch and three boats on Aug. 9, expecting to find a vessel in Smith sound. The boats had to be abandoned, the party reaching the shore across the ice with great difficulty. On Oct. 21, 1883, they were obliged to winter at Cape Sabine. A few depots were found, which had been left by Sir George Nares and W. M. Beebe, but all supplies were exhausted before the spring. Then came a time of great misery and suffering; some of the party proved insubordinate and the sternest meas ures were required to maintain military discipline. When the sun returned in 1884 the men began to die of actual starva tion; but it was not until June 22, 1884, that the relieving steam ers "Thetis" and "Bear" reached Cape Sabine. Greely and six suffering companions were found just alive, but with all their scientific records, their instruments in order, and the great col lections of specimens intact. The failure of the relief expeditions to overcome difficulties which were child's play to what Greely and his companions had come through only enhances the courage and determination of the heroic survivors.
In July 1886 Lieut. Robert E. Peary, civil engineer, U.S. Navy, accompanied by the Dane Christian Maigaard, made a journey on the inland ice of Greenland eastward from Disco bay. They reached a height of 7,500 ft., loom. from the coast, and then returned. Dr. Fridtjof Nansen with Otto Sverdrup and five other companions, after overcoming great difficulties in pene trating the ice-floes, succeeded in landing on the east coast of Greenland in Aug. i888 in 64° 23' N. and reached a height of 8,92oft. on the inland ice, which was crossed on ski in about two weeks to the west coast. On Sept. 26 they reached the head of the Ameralik fjord in 64° 12' N., having traversed 26om. of glacier. An important principle acted on for the first time in Arctic travel on this journey was that of starting from the less accessible side and pushing straight through with no possibility of turning back, and thus with no necessity for forming a base or traversing the same route twice over.
Peary spent the winter of 1891-92 at Inglefield gulf on the north-west coast of Greenland, Mrs. Peary, Dr. F. A. Cook, Eivind Astrup and a coloured servant Matthew Henson being in his party, and a large number of the Etah Eskimo in the vicinity. In April 1892 he set out for a journey across the inland ice to the north-eastward in the hope of reaching the east coast and also the northern extremity of the land. The highest part of the inland ice was found to be about 5,7oof t. Great hardships were experienced, but on July 4, having left the ice and reached bare land in 81° 37' N., where musk oxen and other game were found, Peary was rewarded by a glimpse of the sea to the north-eastward, and named it from the date Independence bay. He also traced a channel to the north beyond which lay a new land largely free from snow, no doubt the southern part of the land along the north of which Markham and Lockwood had travelled to their farthest north. Peary returned to northern Greenland in 1893 ; on the shore of Inglefield gulf he wintered with a party of 13, including Mrs. Peary, and there their daughter was born. A series of accidents prevented much exploration the first sum mer, but in spite of scanty stores, Peary with two of his party, H. J. Lee and M. Henson, remained at Inglefield gulf for another winter, and on April 1, 1895, set out for Independence bay. The journey there and back added little to knowledge, but the experi ence of ice-travel and of Eskimo nature gained in the four years' almost continuous residence in northern Greenland were, however, destined to bear rich fruit.
Mr. F. G. Jackson planned an exploring expedition to attain a high latitude by the Franz Josef Land route and was supported financially by Mr. A. C. Harmsworth (Lord Northcliffe). He was accompanied by Lieut. Albert Armitage, as second in com mand, and six scientific men, including Dr. R. Koettlitz; Dr. W. S. Bruce and D. W. Wilton joined in the second year. The Jackson-Harmsworth expedition sailed in 1894, and was landed at Cape Flora, where log houses were built. In the spring of 1895 Jackson made a journey northward to 81° 19' N. In this and other journeys by land and in boats, he surveyed a con siderable portion of the group. The expedition returned in 1897.
Franz Josef Land was visited by the American explorer W. Wellman in 1898 and 1900, and his companion E. Baldwin in the former year made the discovery of several islands in the east of the archipelago. A wealthy American, W. Zeigler, also sent out expeditions to Franz Josef Land in 1901 and between 1903 and 1905, in the course of which A. Fiala reached the high lati tude of 82° 4' N. in the "America," but the ship was afterwards lost in Teplitz bay.
The Italian expedition under the command of H.R.H. Prince Luigi, duke of the Abruzzi, was the most successful of all those which have attempted to reach high latitudes by way of Franz Josef Land. Sailing in 1899 in the "Stella Polare" the expedition wintered in Teplitz bay in Rudolf island. In the spring of 1900 an effort was made to reach the North Pole by sledging over the sea-ice. The duke of the Abruzzi having been disabled by frost-bite, the leadership of the northern party devolved upon Capt. Cagni, who started on March io, 1900, with ten men and nearly i oo dogs. Before losing sight of Rudolf island three men forming the first supporting party started to return, but they never reached winter quarters and all must have perished. The second party returned safely from latitude 83° 10' N. Cagni pushed on with three companions, and on April 25, 1900, suc ceeded in reaching 86° 34' N. in 65° 20' E. Diminishing food supplies made it necessary to turn at this point, and although he had reached it in 45 days it took Cagni 6o days to return. At the farthest north no land was visible.
Franz Josef Land was to be the base of a march to the Pole by the Russian, G. L. Sedoff, but on his death near Rudolf island in 1913 the journey was abandoned and the "Phoca" (later the "Suvorin") returned to Archangel. G. L. Brusilov sailed in 1912 in the "Santa Anna" to attempt the north-east passage. The ship was caught in the ice of the Kara sea and in a year and a half drifted to 83° N., long. 63° E., north of Franz Josef Land, where 1 1 men left the ship. Two of them were found by the "Phoca" at Cape Flora; the others perished on the way. Nothing is known of the fate of the ship and the remainder of the crew.
As early as 1895 a scheme for an exploring expedition in a balloon was put forward seriously, and in 1897 the Swedish aeronaut S. A. Andree carried it out. He had brought a balloon to Danes island, Spitsbergen, the previous year, but the weather was unpropitious and the ascent had to be postponed. On July 11, 1897, he started in a new and larger balloon with about five tons of supplies and two companions. It was hoped that the balloon could be steered to some extent by the use of heavy guide ropes dragging over the ice, and Andree had already made successful flights in this way. Rising at 2.3o P.M. the balloon was out of sight of Danes island in an hour. At io P.M. Andree threw out a buoy containing a message which was recov ered, and this stated that the balloon was in 82° N. 25° E., moving towards the north-east at an altitude of 800f t. above a rugged ice-field. This was the last news received, and in spite of many rumours, nothing further has ever been ascertained.
In 1897 and subsequent years Sir Martin Conway explored the interior of Spitsbergen. Dr. A. G. Nathorst explored the eastern coast and off-lying islands, including Gilies land. In 1899 Nathorst visited the north-east coast of Greenland, mapped Franz Josef fjord, and discovered the great King Oscar fjord.
In 1899 Admiral S. O. Makaroff of the Russian navy arranged for the trial trip of the great ice-breaker "Yermak," which he designed, to the sea-ice off Spitsbergen. Though no high lati tude was attained on this occasion he formed the opinion that a vessel of sufficient size and power could force a passage even to the Pole. The Russian-Japanese War put an end to the polar projects of this gifted man of science.
In subsequent years valuable surveys and scientific observa tions were made by the Prince of Monaco in his yacht "Princesse Alice," by Dr. W. S. Bruce, notably on Prince Charles foreland, and by others.
Otto Sverdrup planned an Arctic voyage for the circumnavi gation of Greenland in the "Fram." G. I. Isachsen was the sur veyor. Starting in 1899, he was obliged to abandon the attempt to get northward through Smith sound, and making his way westward into Jones sound he spent three years in exploring islands to the north of the field of the Franklin search expedi tions. Axel Heiberg and other islands between Ellesmere and Melville islands were discovered and mapped, and a great deal of valuable work was accomplished.
Between 1912 and 1915 the Russian ice-breakers "Taimir" and "Vaigach," under the command of B. A. Vilkitski, were employed in surveys of the Arctic coast of Siberia. Besides much accurate charting of the coasts, and oceanographical work, they discovered in 1913 Nicholas Land (Northern Land) and two small islands north-west of Cape Chelyuskin and made partial surveys of them in 1914. The northern limits of Nicholas Land are unknown. Bennett island was also explored, Jokhov and Vilkitski islands discovered to the south-east of it and Sannikov land practically disproved.
Between 1918-21 Amundsen made the north-east passage in the "Maud," wintering three times on the Siberian coast on his way to Alaska. The voyage was preliminary to a journey across the Arctic Ocean on the lines of Nansen's drift in the "Fram." Unfavourable ice-conditions delayed the successful start of the drift until 1922. Amundsen returned to Europe to prepare for his polar flight and O. Wisting commanded the "Maud." H. U. Sverdrup was the scientific leader. From Wrangel island the ship drifted for two years south of and parallel to the track of the "Jeannette" to the north of the New Siberian islands. Then after another winter at the Bear islands near the Kolima mouth the "Maud" returned to Nome.
Greenland.—Danish explorers have continued to concentrate their attention on Greenland. Lieut. G. D. Amdrup, in a series of expeditions between 1898 and 1900, charted the east coast as far north as 70° 15' N. The duke of Orleans in the "Belgica," under the command of Captain Gerlache in 1905 cruised along the coast between 76° and 78° N., and fixed the gen eral outline of the land. This expedition did a large amount of work in oceanography. L. Mylius-Erichsen sailed in the "Dan mark" in June 1906 and found winter quarters in Danmarkhaven, 43' N., where the ship remained for two years, while sys tematic observations were kept up at the base and the work of exploring to the northward was carried on by sledge. The coast was found to curve much farther to the north-eastward than had been anticipated. Having left the winter quarters on March 28, 1907, Mylius-Erichsen, with Capts. J. P. Koch, N. P. Hagen, an educated Eskimo, Bronlund and two others, reached north-east foreland, the eastern extremity of Greenland (8 r ° 20' N., 1 r ° 15' W.) charting the coast as they went. Here they divided; Koch with A. Berthelsen and the Eskimo Tobias went north-westward to explore the east coast of Peary Land, and succeeded in reach ing Cape Bridgman in 83° 29' N., thus linking up with Peary's work in 1900. From this great journey he returned in safety to winter quarters. Meanwhile Mylius-Erichsen, with Hagen and Bronlund, followed the coast westward into what was believed to be the Independence bay seen from a distance by Peary; this turned out to be a deep inlet now named Danmark fjord. Keep ing to the coast, they entered Independence bay and pushed on to Cape Glacier in 82° N. and W. by June 14, 1907, within sight of Navy Cliff, which had been Peary's farthest coming from the west side. Here the softness of the snow kept them all summer. When they could travel, more than a fortnight was wasted adrift on a floe in the effort to cross Danmark fjord. Here the sun left them, while they were without food, almost worn out and more than 500m. from the ship. It was impossible to attempt the long journey round the coast, and the only chance of safety, and that a very slender one, was to make a way southward over the inland ice and so cut off the eastern horn of Greenland which the expedition had discovered. Under the most terrible difficulties they accomplished the feat of marching in 26 days, and reached the east coast again in 79° N. Hagen died on the way; Mylius-Erichsen himself struggled on until he nearly reached the provisions left on Lambert island on the northern journey; but he too perished, and only Bronlund reached the supplies. He was unable to proceed further, and after recording the journey in his diary, he died also alone in the Arctic night. His records were discovered in the following year by Koch, and Erichsen's in 1910 by E. Mikkelsen.
Using as a base the Eskimo trading station of Thule in North Star bay on Smith sound, K. Rasmussen, L. Koch and other Danes have carefully explored the north of Greenland, and in 1921-24 Rasmussen, P. Freuchen and K. Birket-Smith contin ued their researches in Eskimo culture by visiting, between them, all the tribes from Greenland to Alaska. They also surveyed parts of Baffin island (Cockburn Land). Eskimo stations on Scoresby sound, east Greenland, founded 1925-26, have been the base of other work by L. Koch. In 1926 a Cambridge expe dition under J. M. Wordie did some survey on the east between 72° and 75° N.
Returning to America, Peary prepared for a last attempt. Leaving New York in July 1908 the "Roosevelt," again under the command of R. Bartlett, brought the party, with the Eskimo who were picked up on the way, to Cape Sheridan by Sept. 5. During the winter all supplies were transported to Cape Colum bia, farther west on the coast of Grant Land. Here there were ready to start in the first light of the Arctic day seven explorers, 17 picked Eskimo and 133 of the best dogs in Greenland, with 19 sledges. As the outcome of all Peary's experience the expe dition was arranged to consist of a lightly equipped advance party to select the route and make the trail by clearing a way through rough ice, and a main party composed of units of four men each with sledges containing all their requirements march ing one day behind the pioneer party. From this unit parties were to return southward at intervals with the empty sledges, leaving the diminished main party to push on fully provisioned. The "big lead," said to mark the edge of the continental shelf in 84° N., was crossed after some delay and here the sun appeared for the first time on March 5, 1909. D. B. Macmillan with three Eskimo and three sledges returned along the outward trail after March 7 from 84° 29' N. A sounding at this point showed the depth of the sea to be 825 fathoms. After five more marches G. Borup turned back in 85° 23' with three Eskimo and three sledges, the best Eskimo and dogs remaining with the main party. From this point the advance was regular; the pioneer party started from the snow-houses they had built and slept in when the main party arrived, and while the latter slept the pioneers marched, selected a camp, built new snow-houses, and slept till the main party came up. At 86° 38' N. R. G. Marvin turned back, as usual with the three worst Eskimo and the worst dogs. His party reached the ship, but he himself was drowned in re crossing the "big lead," the only casualty of the expedition. At 88° N. Bartlett turned back on April 1 in accordance with the system with two Eskimo, one sledge and 18 dogs. Up to this point Peary had saved himself as much as possible, leaving the path-finding and the observations to his very competent col leagues; but now he put forth all his strength for the arduous 140m. which separated him from the Pole. He was accompanied by Henson and four Eskimo. The ice improved as he went on, and it was possible to do 25m. in a daily march of i o hours, and on one occasion 3om. in 12 hours. On April 6 an observa tion gave 89° S7' N., and here a camp was made and observa tions taken throughout 24 hours to fix the position, as well as excursions a few miles farther on and a few miles to right and left so as to be sure of actually reaching the Pole. No land was to be seen, and a sounding through the ice gave a depth of 1,50o fathoms with no bottom. The American flag was hoisted; the goal of all the ages of exploration had been reached.
The return journey was quick and easy. The tracks kept open by the passage of the various return parties were distinct, the snow-houses stood ready, and a northerly gale kept the ice pressed well together and the leads closed. On April 23 Cape Columbia was reached and soon after the party was safe on board the "Roosevelt." Success was due to the accumulated expe rience of 23 years' constant Arctic work, and to the thorough acquaintance with the Eskimo and their dogs, which enabled the best work to be got out of them.
Dr. F. A. Cook spent two years in the Arctic regions, 19o7-9, and claimed to have reached the Pole by sledging alone with two Eskimo a year before Peary. He submitted the evidence for this achievement to the university of Copenhagen, which failed to find it satisfactory, and Dr. Cook did not appear to challenge this decision.
Leaving Point Barrow, Alaska, on April 15, 1928, Captain George H. Wilkins and Lieut. Eielson flew across the Arctic ocean, reaching Spitsbergen in 202 hours, and covering 2,200 miles. Wilkins was knighted on his return.